1 The Implicit and Explicit Learning of Orthographic Structure and Function of a New Writing System 指導教授： Chen Ming-Puu 報 告 者 ： Chen Hsiu-Ju 報告日期： Wang, M., Liu, Y., & Perfetti, C. A. (2004). The implicit and explicit learning of orthographic structure and function of a new writing system. Scientific Studies of Reading, 8(4),

2 Introduction (1/3) In learning Chinese, adult speakers of English face several challenges Some differences In how reading works in Chinese compared with English (Leong, 1997; Perfetti, Liu, & Tan, 2002). The learner faces a rich and complex orthographic structure expressed in a nonlinear form. The basic unit, the character, maps onto a syllabic morpheme and is pronounced as a syllable including onset, rime, and tone. Each character consists of interwoven strokes.( 24 basic strokes)

3 Introduction (2/3) There are the more common compound characters, those that contain two or more distinct radical components. (ex: 扛 meaning 'carry with shoulder," pronounced as /kang/2 ) The configuration of the radicals in compound characters is normally either a left-right or top-bottom structure. Radical components of compound characters are normally categorized into two types: –semantic radicals ( ex “ “. 江 ‘river’ (/jiang/1) and ‘ 海 'sea" (/hai/3),) –phonetic radicals (ex“ ” ‘green’ is pronounced as /qing/1, and the two characters 請 ‘invite’(/qing/3) and 晴 "sunny'(/qing/2) ) Wang, Perfetti, and Liu (2003) found the learners were sensitive to the structural complexity of characters.

4 Introduction (3/3) We found that students were taught neither the orthographic structure of Chinese characters nor the function of the character components. Thompson and his colleagues (Fletcher-Flinn & Thompson, 2000; Thompson, Cottrell. & Fletcher-Flinn, 1996; Thompson, Fletcher Flinn. & Cottrell, 1999) suggested that there are two knowledge sources in acquiring letter- phoneme correspondences in English reading acquisition. –implicit learning: involving children's self discovery of the letter- phoneme relationship as well as induction from their accumulated print experiences –explicit learning : involving explicit instruction of these correspondences.

5 Experiment1- explicit learning Method 15 participants(10at the University of Pittsburgh (Pitt), at Carnegie Mellon University (CMU)) 10 at Pitt, There were ten 50-min sessions per week for a student who was registered for both the oral and the reading-writing course: 7 sessions devoted to oral language practice and 3 to reading-writing.(263 words ) 5 at CMU, had an integrated listening, speaking, reading, and writing curriculum. There were five 50-min sessions per week. (230 word.) The two curricula had 130 characters in common.

6 Materials and designs There were 160 items-80 characters and 80 noncharacters. (appendix) Two variables were manipulated for the real characters: –high or low frequency (H(Pitt)SD=44.85,H(CMU)SD=15.55;L(Pitt)SD=9.68,L(CMU)SD=4.8) –simple or compound character high-frequency simple (HS) characters (ex: 小 ) high-frequency compound (HC) characters (ex: 她 ) low-frequency simple (LS) characters (ex: 生 ) low-frequency compound (LC) characters (ex: 機 ) The noncharacters were constructed varying the legality of the radical forms and the legality of the radical positions. –Legal radicals in legal positions (LR-LP ;eg: ) –legal radicals in illegal position (LR-ILP ;eg: ) –illegal radicals (ILR; eg: ) –visual symbols (e.g., $, *).

7 Appendix

8 Procedure & Result using E-Prime software. The participant saw a fixation sign (+) first for 500 msec, followed by a target character until a response was given. The participant was instructed to press the left mouse button to indicate Yes and the right one to indicate No to make the lexical decision as quickly and accurately as possible. The trimmed data underwent a log transformation to increase the normality and homoscedasticity of the reaction times (RTs) for the participants.

9 Results and Discussion The decision time analysis was based on correct responses. A 2×2×2. A Frequency ( high vs. low ) x Structural Complexity ( simple vs. compound characters ) x Group ( Pitt vs. CMU students ) repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). The two student groups did not differ, (F(l, 13) =.33, p>.5) The interactions between the group and the two stimulus variables ( frequency and structural complexity ) were not significant. ( Fs.05) See figure1. The main effect of frequency was significant. (F(l. 13) = 19.02, MSE=.0014,p <. 01). The main effect of structural complexity of the characters was also significant. (F(l, 13) = 27.01, MSE =.0009, p <.001) RTs for HC characters were shorter than for LC characters, HS characters shorter than LS characters, and LS characters shorter than LC characters, all ps <,05.

10 Figure1,2 Figure1. real characters Figure2 noncharacters

11 Noncharacters: No responses The participants made the fastest rejection on visual symbols and the slowest rejection on the noncharacters containing LR-LP. They further indicated that the learners could detect illegal forms of the radicals faster than illegal positions of the radicals. Figure3.

12 Experiment 2 Focused on testing Chinese learners' implicit and explicit learning of semantic radicals. 15 participants from Experiment 1 Materials and design: (see Table1) –A list of 18 unknown characters was selected for the experiment from both the Pitt and CMU programs. –Fourteen of the characters had a left-right structure. Four items had a top-bottom structure. –six high- and six low-type-frequency semantic radicals were selected from their curriculum. (H(Pitt)SD=8.33,L(Pitt)SD=3.00; H(CMU)SD=7.33,L(CMU)SD=2.5)

13 Table 1

14 Procedure The experiment consisted of three steps. –Step I: Unknown character identification with no probing. (They were encouraged to take a guess.) –Step 2: Identification with probing. (have you seen any part of this character before? Please circle it so that I can see it. Does it tell you something? Take a guess ) –Step 3: Identification with explicit instruction. –(“Look at this part [pointing to the target radical in the target character, e.g.” ”]. Does it appear in 海 ’sea 流 ‘ water-flow’ and 游 ‘swim‘. What do these characters mean? I would like to let you know that this part often tells you something related to “water”. So this new character “ 濕 ” means 'wet' and is pronounced as /shi/1. Try the next character now.")

15 Coding system The students' unknown character identification performance was coded according to the following scale that ranged from – 0 (don’t know) eg: trying to relate the unknown character “ 酒 ”wine‘with 四 'four"). –1 (attempt to make inference, but unsuccessful) After probing. –0 (don't know) –1 (identify visually only) eg; circle the familiar radicals –2 (identify visually and make appropriate inference) eg: if the student could not only identify 口 ‘mouth’ in 喝 'drink" but also infer that the novel character has a meaning related with 'mouth'). After the explicit instruction –0 (don’t know) –1 (identify visually only) –2 (identify visually and make appropriate inference)

16 Results and Discussion 1/4 Unknown character identification with no probing. –The participants could not identify successfully the pronunciations of any of the unknown characters. (see figure 3.) –The participants made an attempt to infer the meanings on a very small percentage of the unknown characters (about 14% low frequency, 10% high frequency) but were not successful. Figure 3.

17 Results and Discussion 2/4 After probing. The percentage of items that fell into the three coding categories after the experimenter's probing is shown in Figure 4. Results showed that there was a significant effect of response type, F(2, 13)= 14.84, p<.00l.

18 Results and Discussion 3/4 After explicit instruction. The percentage of items that fell into the three coding categories after the experimenter‘s explicit instruction is.shown in Figure 5. Results showed that the learning effect was significant. F( 1, 14) = 6.81,p<.05.

19 Results and Discussion 4/4 The students made more appropriate meaning inferences on high-frequency radicals than low- frequency ones. This result suggests that print exposure plays an important role in learning orthographic regularities. After explicit instruction, the students performed even better.

20 General Discussion 1/2 This powerful implicit learning could be attributed to two important characteristics of Chinese character learning by alphabetic readers. –First, because each Chinese character is a salient perceptual unit, visual-orthographic skills are critical in learning to identify characters. –Another important feature of these learners is that they were forced to learn to speak and read simultaneously.

21 General Discussion 2/2 Two future research directions are suggested. –In Experiment 1 did not inform us as to whether the learners acquired explicit understanding of the internal structure of the character. –In Experiment 2 it would be important to examine whether learners‘ explicit learning of the radical function of the character can generalize to characters containing radicals that the students encountered in their curriculum but were not trained on in the experiment.

22 Thank you !