G ENDER AND S EXUALITY  Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender  Gender Comparisons and Classification  Gender Development through the Life Span  Exploring Sexuality  Sexuality through the Life Span

G ENDER AND S EX Gender — characteristics of being female or male Gender role : set of expectations prescribing how females and males should act, feel, and think Gender typing : process by which children acquire thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally appropriate for their gender Sex — designates the biological aspects of being female or male Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

B IOLOGICAL I NFLUENCES Chromosomes — 23rd pair with X and Y Hormones Estrogens Influences development of female physical sex characteristics and helps regulate menstrual cycle Androgens Testosterone promotes development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

B IOLOGICAL I NFLUENCES Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex hormones early in development Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) Androgen-insensitive males Pelvic field defect Failed sex reassignment Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

E VOLUTIONARY P SYCHOLOGY V IEW OF G ENDER Differing roles in reproduction placed different pressures on males and females Key gender differences in sexual attitudes and sexual behaviors Males — competition, violence, risk-taking Females — parenting effort, selection of successful mate Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

S OCIAL I NFLUENCES Differences due to social experiences Social role theory : gender differences result from contrasting roles of men and women Psychoanalytic theory of gender : claims child identifies with same-sex parent by age 5 or 6 Many disagree, claiming gender learned much earlier (even in absence of same-sex parent) Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

S OCIAL I NFLUENCES Differences due to social experiences Social cognitive theory of gender — gender development results from observation and imitation, use of rewards and punishments for gender- appropriate behaviors Mothers’ socialization strategies Fathers’ socialization strategies Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

C OGNITIVE I NFLUENCES Cognitive development theory of gender Children’s gender typing occurs after they think of themselves as boys and girls; gender constancy must be achieved first Once consistently conceived as male or female, children prefer activities, objects, and attitudes consistent with this label Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

C OGNITIVE I NFLUENCES Gender schema theory Gender typing emerges gradually in gender schemas of what is culturally gender-appropriate and inappropriate Gender-typed behavior can occur before children develop gender constancy Schema: cognitive structure Gender schema: organizes world in terms of male and female Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender

G ENDER S TEREOTYPING Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males Traditional masculinity and femininity Males – instrumental traits Females - expressive traits Roles and traits – unequal social status, power Stereotyping varies with culture Stereotyping of occupations Gender Comparisons and Classification

Young Children’s Judgments about Competency in Stereotyped Occupations Gender Comparisons and Classification

G ENDER S IMILARITIES AND D IFFERENCES Physical differences Females have longer life expectancy less likely to develop mental or physical disorders Resistant to infections, more elastic blood vessels Males have higher levels of stress hormones causing faster clotting and higher blood pressure Gender Comparisons and Classification

G ENDER S IMILARITIES AND D IFFERENCES Physical differences Female brains are smaller, have more folds Part of hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is larger in men Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial skills is larger in males Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show more activity in females Gender Comparisons and Classification

C OGNITIVE S IMILARITIES AND D IFFERENCES Some claim males better at math and visuospatial skills and females better at verbal skills Others claim differences exaggerated National standardized tests Boys slightly better at math and science Girls better at reading and writing Overall, girls superior students to boys Gender Comparisons and Classification

V ISUOSPATIAL S KILLS OF M ALES AND F EMALES Gender Comparisons and Classification

S OCIOEMOTIONAL S IMILARITIES AND D IFFERENCES Aggression Males more physically aggressive in all cultures Females more verbally aggressive; use relational aggression more than men Self-Regulation Males show less self-regulation, can lead to behavioral problems Controversies over psychological differences Gender Comparisons and Classification

S OCIOEMOTIONAL S IMILARITIES AND D IFFERENCES Overall meta analysis Gender differences: small to nonexistent Physical aggression differences were moderate Largest difference in motor skills favoring males Males more sexually active than females Gender Comparisons and Classification

S OCIOEMOTIONAL S IMILARITIES AND D IFFERENCES Gender in context Gender varies across contexts Males more likely to help in perceived danger Females more likely to volunteer to help with child Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys Males more likely to show anger towards strangers and turn anger into aggression Cultural backgrounds influence socialization Gender Comparisons and Classification

M ASCULINITY, F EMININITY, AND A NDROGYNY Androgyny — presence of masculine and feminine characteristics in same individual Bem Sex-Role Inventory: Instrumental, expressive traits Context influencing gender role is adaptive Gender-role transcendence — people should be evaluated as persons, not in terms of femininity, masculinity, or androgyny Gender Comparisons and Classification

B EM ’ S G ENDER -R OLE C LASSIFICATION Gender Comparisons and Classification

G ENDER D EVELOPMENT IN C HILDHOOD Children form many ideas about what the sexes are like from about 1½ to 3 years of age Boys receive earlier and more intense gender socialization (e.g.: ‘boy code’) Children show clear preference for same-sex peers Gender Development through the Life-Span

G ENDER D EVELOPMENT IN A DOLESCENCE Transition point; changes in puberty Gender-intensification hypothesis Psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence Increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional gender roles Mixed messages and special problems Gender Development through the Life-Span

C OMMUNICATION B ETWEEN M EN AND W OMEN Rapport talk Language of conversation, a way to establish connections and negotiate relationships Preferred by women Report talk Language designed to give information, including public speaking Preferred by men Gender Development through the Life-Span

A DULTHOOD AND A GING Women’s Gender Development Women often try to actively participate in others’ development Emotionally Intellectually Socially Women maintain competency, self-motivation, and self-determination in relationships Gender Development through the Life-Span

A DULTHOOD AND A GING Men’s gender development Male roles are contradictory and inconsistent Can cause role-strain in Health Male-female relationships Male-male relationships Gender Development through the Life-Span

G ENDER AND A GING Parental imperative Mothers and fathers adopt different gender roles so they can raise children more effectively Older women face double jeopardy of ageism and sexism Older men become more feminine, less active, and more sensitive in relationships Gender Development through the Life-Span

B IOLOGICAL AND C ULTURAL F ACTORS Biological Sexual behavior is influenced by sex hormones Sexual behavior is so individualized in humans that it is difficult to specify hormonal effects Sexual motivation also influenced by cultural factors Exploring Sexuality

B IOLOGICAL AND C ULTURAL F ACTORS Cultural factors Range of sexual values across cultures is substantial Sexual scripts — stereotyped expectancy patterns for how people should behave sexually Traditional religious script — sex is accepted only within marriage; sex is for reproduction and sometimes affection Romantic script — sex synonymous with love Exploring Sexuality

T HE 1994 S EX IN A MERICA S URVEY Exploring Sexuality Cohabiting (married)Noncohabiting Men Women 1% 2 to 3 times a week 3% Never A few times a year A few times a month 4 or more times a week

S EXUAL O RIENTATION Heterosexual attitudes and behavior Different categories for frequency of sex Married couples have sex more often Most couples enjoy traditional sex Adultery is exception, not the rule Men think about sex more than women Most lead conservative sexual lives Exploring Sexuality

S EXUAL O RIENTATION Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males Bisexual : sexually attracted to both sexes Research on biological and hormonal differences on sexual preferences unclear Area of hypothalamus governing sexual behavior 2x larger in heterosexual males Exploring Sexuality

T HE C ONTINUUM OF S EXUAL O RIENTATION Exploring Sexuality 3 Largely heterosexual but more than incidental homosexual behavior 0 Exclusively heterosexual behavior 1 Largely heterosexual but incidental homosexual behavior 3 Equal amounts of heterosexual and homosexual behavior 4 Largely homosexual but more than incidental heterosexual behavior 5 Largely homosexual but incidental heterosexual behavior 6 Exclusively homosexual behavior

S EXUAL O RIENTATION Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males Gender differences appearing in heterosexual relationships also occurs in homosexual relationships Gay and lesbians experience life as minorities in dominant culture, with bicultural identity Exploring Sexuality

S EXUALLY T RANSMITTED I NFECTIONS Gonorrhea Syphilis Chlamydia Genital Herpes HPV – causes genital warts AIDS – sexually-transmitted disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) Exploring Sexuality

P ROTECTING A GAINST STI S Education and development of effective drug treatments Only safe behavior is abstinence Know your and your partner’s risk status Obtain screening tests for STIs Have protected, not unprotected, sex Don’t have sex with multiple partners Exploring Sexuality

F ORCIBLE S EXUAL B EHAVIOR Rape Forcible sexual intercourse without consent; legal definitions vary by state Victims reluctant to report rape; stats vary 5% of rape victims are males Date or acquaintance rape: coercive sexual activity with acquaintance or better known, a concern for colleges Exploring Sexuality

S EXUAL H ARASSMENT Ranging from remarks to physical contact, blatant propositions to sexual assaults Most victims are women in educational and workplace settings Has serious psychological effects on victim One person’s manifestation of power over another Exploring Sexuality

R APE V ICTIM -O FFENDER R ELATIONSHIPS Exploring Sexuality Friend Percentage of sample ClassmateBoyfriend/ ex-boyfriend Acquaintance Offender Other

C HILD S EXUALITY Majority of children engage in some sex play Usually with friends or siblings Exhibiting or inspecting the genitals Most motivated by curiosity Sex play declines, but sexual interest remains high in elementary school years Sexuality through the Life-Span

A DOLESCENT S EXUALITY Adolescence Time of sexual exploration, experimentation, fantasies, and incorporating sexuality into one’s identity Most have insatiable curiosity about sex Majority develop mature sexual identity; most have times of vulnerability and confusion Societies vary in response to adolescent sexuality Sexuality through the Life-Span

D EVELOPING A S EXUAL I DENTITY Multifaceted, lengthy challenge to manage new feelings, develop identity and self-regulation Great variety in orientations, interest levels, anxiety levels, activity, and reasons for choices in activity Gay or lesbian identity: coming-out Homosexual behavior in adolescence may not continue into adulthood Sexuality through the Life-Span

A DOLESCENT S EXUAL B EHAVIORS U.S. survey of sexual behavior Most have sex after age 15, 80% by age 19 First voluntary partner for girls is about same age Trend: adolescents waiting longer to have sex Casual oral sex is common, increasing; believed to be safer and not really ‘having sex’ Sexuality through the Life-Span

R ISK F ACTORS, Y OUTH A SSETS, AND S EXUAL P ROBLEMS Personal risk factors Ineffective or lack of use of contraceptives Early maturation linked to early sexual initiation; varies by ethnic group and SES Lack of self-regulation Sexuality through the Life-Span

O THER R ISKS Sexually transmitted infections 3 million U.S. adolescents acquire STIs annually Africa: girls infected with HIV by adult men Adolescent pregnancy U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates decreasing; but one of highest rates in developed world Negative consequences for teen mother and child Cross-cultural studies on sexual active adolescents Sexuality through the Life-Span

C ROSS -C ULTURAL C OMPARISONS OF P REGNANCY Sexuality through the Life-Span Births per 1,000 women 15 to 19 years old Year 1985

C ONSEQUENCES OF A DOLESCENT P REGNANCY Health risks for mother and child Low birth rate in newborns linked to infant mortality, neurological problems, childhood illness Young mothers more likely to Drop out of school; were low achievers in school Have history of conduct problems Come from low-income backgrounds Live in poverty Sexuality through the Life-Span

S EXUALITY AND A GING Emerging adulthood Time frame for sexual activity and singlehood Most limit sex partners to 1 or two persons annually Casual sex more common in ‘hooking up’ The earlier the age of first sex, the more sexual activity in emerging adulthood Religious adults have fewer sexual partners Sexuality through the Life-Span

S EXUALITY AND A GING Middle adulthood Climacteric: midlife transition, fertility ends/declines Women: Menopause late forties or early fifties; Perimenopausal is transitional time Hormone replacement therapy (HRT) Men — less testosterone, less desire, possible erectile dysfunction (Viagra) Ability to function slows little, frequency drops Sexuality through the Life-Span

S EXUALITY AND A GING Late adulthood Men experience more changes than women Orgasm less frequent More direct stimulation needed Erection problems more likely after 65 Sexuality can be lifelong Two-thirds of older adults satisfied Sexuality through the Life-Span