CONCEPTUAL ISSUES Interdependence of Science and Metatheoretical Assumptions and Values Gould Blatant example of values guiding (pseudo)science. Both recapitulation and neoteny theories used to support racist views, even though theories are opposed to each other.

Overton Standard description of development is change in observed behavior over time or with age. But, change is not explained by age or time Observed behavior (action) can be: 1.Expressive (reflecting underlying organization, structure) – constitutive (creative, new) 2. Instrumental (means to attaining outcome) – communicative (intersubjective) Any act can be understood as (1) or (2). Failure to define makes meaning of observed behavior ambiguous (conceptual confusion).

Split between types of understanding has led to “antimonies” Expressive constitutive has been suppressed. Relational perspective: 2 types are “alternative lines of sight on same object of inquiry”. Need to study change in both expressive- constitutive and instrumental-communicative features of behavior. 2 types of change: 1. Transformational (change in pattern, form, organization) 2. Variational (variation from assumed standard)

Inclusive relational definition: Development is “formal (transformational) and functional (variational) changes in the expressive- constitutive and instrumental-communicative features of behavior.” Split position dissociates these types of change. Ex. behavior is function of biology or culture or additive combination of these (ex. behavior genetics). Relational position: Action is mechanism of development that is manifest biologically and socially. Metatheory is as basic to inquiry as observation.

Evolutionary (neo-Darwinian) metanarrative: Internal genetic influence with chance variation split from external environment with contingent (adaptive) variation. No principle of organization. Is root of nature-nurture controversy. Idea of adaptation of genetic foundation to split-off environment is flawed. Interactionism & constraint models are extension of split.

Relational metanarrative (Embodied action): Bio/social-cultural action matrix is self-organizing, holistic, system with organized complexity. Inner/outer, nature/nurture, subject/object, etc. are relational concepts representing poles of the system -- no “real” substance to them Form constrains variational action Variational action creates novel forms

Relational metanarrative ( Continued ): Mechanism of change is action of system itself: “action of organism as it engages progressively differentiated biological and social-cultural subsystems” o (ex: Piaget’s notions of adaptation and organization) o Social world provides context for behavioral & organizational change, but doesn’t shape behavior or cause adaptation (rejects “radical contextualism”).

Philosophical trends: Plato, Aristotle were relational, not always viewed that way Galileo, Descartes--originated split narrative (subject/ object)--were rationalist (knowledge gained by reason) Enlightenment: o Locke, Berkeley, Hume: objective is “real”--rejected rationalism (reason) o Newton promoted mechanistic view: objective is real, organization/transformation are appearance o Split, empiricist view influenced behaviorism, functionalism

Philosophical trends (Continued): Leibniz, Hegel-- promoted relational view o Dialectic models influenced Baldwin, Piaget, Vygotsky, Werner, Lewin, Bowlby Kant is special case: relational is some aspects (concepts without percepts are empty, percepts without concepts are blind) o but preserved split (between real object & representation of object) -provided ground for nativist views (Chomsky)

Philosophical trends (Continued): Hegel replaced Kant metaphor of mind as filing cabinet with metaphor of organic growth o Known and knowing in dialectic relation, mismatch leads to change. o Conceptual base for phenomenological constructivism (“mind constructs the world as known, but the known world is a co-actor”--constructivist position of Piaget reflects this. Marx was influenced by Hegel, but his dialectical materialism was a split view Pragmatism (Dewey) has aspects of relational view, but largely split

Methodology: Split tradition associated with positivism and instrumentalism-conventionalism reduced scientific inquiry from reason and observation to observation alone. o Induction from observation, experimentation and assessment viewed as scientific. o Deduction and metatheoretical models and theories viewed only as heuristic devices.

Methodology (Continued): Relational tradition and associated research programs include metatheories, models, and theories (interpretation) as equal in importance to observation, experimentation, and assessment o Scientific knowledge accrues through circular dialectic movement from reason to observation, observation to reason. o Involves abduction rather than induction or deduction.