Acquiring a theory of mind Typically developing children and adults

Unexpected transfer test Wimmer & Perner (1983) While Maxi is out playing, his Mum takes the chocolate from the cupboard and grates some of it into a cake. Maxi is returning from play feeling hungry. He wants his chocolate. Where will Maxi look for his chocolate? Where did Maxi put his chocolate? Where did Mum put his chocolate?

Deceptive box test Whats inside this tube? What is it? What will your friend Johnny say is inside? (Perner et al, 1987) When you first saw this tube, before we opened it, what did you think was inside? (Gopnik & Astington, 1988)

Appearance-reality And correlations between theory of mind tests Flavell et al (1983) Gopnik & Astington (1988)

Have children been underestimated? Perhaps they misunderstand what the experimenter is asking Difficulty with the test question (Siegal & Beattie, 1991) The importance of story comprehension (Lewis et al, 1994)

The importance of state-change (Wimmer & Hartl, 1991) Whats inside this tube? What is it? Ive taken away the Smarties and put a pencil in the tube When you first saw this tube, before we opened it, what did you think was inside?

Wimmer and Hartl got it wrong Saltmarsh et al (1995) Whats inside this tube? What is it? Ive taken away the Smarties and put a pencil in the tube When you first saw this tube, before we opened it, what did you think was inside? When you first saw this tube, before we opened it, what was inside?

Explaining childrens correct judgments in state change Mitchell & Lacohee (1991) Whats inside this tube? Can you post a picture of what you thinks inside the tube… What is it? When you posted your picture, what did you think was inside this tube? Cartoon posting control condition

The truth about false belief! Wellman et als (2001) meta analysis Modified test Standard test Age Performance If there was no shift Age Performance If there was a shift Age Performance If there was a shift and modifications merely boosted performance Age Performance If there was a shift Age Performance If there was a shift

Adults difficulty with false belief Mitchell et al, 1996

Hindsight bias Fischhoff, 1975 Who was most likely to win a battle fought in India 200 years ago, British or Ghurkhas? Who was most likely to win a battle fought in India 200 years ago, British or Ghurkhas? The British had good tactics and good weapons The British had good tactics and good weapons The Ghurkhas knew the terrain and had great determination The Ghurkhas knew the terrain and had great determination Actually, the British won but put that out of your mind because I want to know who you thought had the best chance of winning given the factors that advantaged one side or the other Actually, the British won but put that out of your mind because I want to know who you thought had the best chance of winning given the factors that advantaged one side or the other Result: Hindsight bias and confusion between own and others beliefs Result: Hindsight bias and confusion between own and others beliefs

Keysar et al (2003)

Apperly et al (2006) Psychological Science