Chapter 5 Learning

Overview Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Learning through association of stimuli Operant Conditioning Learning through consequences Cognitive Learning Observational Learning Learning through watching others 2

Learning A relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude acquired through experience cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation

Classical Conditioning LO 5.1 A type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another A stimulus is any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds A type of learning in which a response naturally ELICTED by 1 stimulus comes to be ELICITED by a different, formerly neutral stimulus 5.1 How does the kind of learning Pavlov discovered happen?

Figure 5.1 The Experimental Apparatus Used in Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Studies In Pavlov’s classical conditioning studies, the dog was restrained in a harness in the cubicle and isolated from all distractions. An experimenter observed the dog through a one-way mirror and, by remote control, presented the dog with food and other conditioning stimuli. A tube carried the saliva from the dog’s mouth to a container where it was measured. 5

Pavlov and the Process of Classical Conditioning cont… Neutral stimulus (NS) Causes no response Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (US) Elicits an unconditioned response without learning Unconditioned Response (UCR) (UR) elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without learning

Pavlov and the Process of Classical Conditioning cont… Conditioned stimulus (CS) Neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with UCS, becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response Conditioned response (CR) Learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Figure 5.2 Classically Conditioning a Salivation Response A neutral stimulus (a tone) elicits no salivation until it is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food). After many pairings, the neutral stimulus (now called the conditioned stimulus) alone produces salivation. Classical conditioning has occurred. 8

Changing Conditioned Responses LO 5.2 Extinction weakening and disappearance of CR as a result of repeated presentation of CS without UCS Spontaneous Recovery reappearance of extinguished CR when organism is exposed to CS following rest period 5.2 What causes classically conditioned responses to change?

Changing Conditioned Responses LO 5.2 Generalization tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS Discrimination learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli CR occurs only in response to the original CS, not to similar stimuli. 5.2 What causes classically conditioned responses to change?

John Watson Watson and Rayner (1920) "Little Albert" Study LO 5.3 Watson and Rayner (1920) "Little Albert" Study 3 important findings: Humans can be classically conditioned Fear can be learned. Fear can be generalized. 5.3 What did Watson's "Little Albert" experiment show?

Human Behavior and Classical conditioning Psychological drug dependence Music Smells Can you think of others??

Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life LO 5.6 Why can diet soda make people hungry? The sweet taste of soda becomes a CS. elicits insulin increase (UCR) leads to feelings of hunger The pancreas pumps out insulin (lowers blood sugar) in response to any sweet taste such as diet soda. 5.6 What are some examples of classical conditioning in everyday life?

Classical Conditioning in Everyday Life LO 5.6 Why can diet soda make people hungry? Without real sugar, insulin causes blood sugar to drop below normal. Insulin drop causes the body to signal to the brain to eat. 5.6 What are some examples of classical conditioning in everyday life?

Operant Conditioning: Thorndike Skinner and the Consequences of Behavior LO 5.7 Law of Effect (Thorndike) Organisms tend to repeat behaviors that bring about pleasant consequences and ignore those that do not. Law of effect formed the basis for B. F. Skinner's work on operant conditioning. 5.7 What did Thorndike and Skinner discover about the consequences of behavior?

Learning is influenced by its consequences!!!! Operant Conditioning: Thorndike, Skinner, and the Consequences of Behavior LO 5.7 Operant voluntary behavior that accidentally brings about a consequence Operant Conditioning The consequences of behavior are manipulated to INCREASE or DECREASE the frequency of an existing response or shape a new one. Learning is influenced by its consequences!!!! 5.7 What did Thorndike and Skinner discover about the consequences of behavior?

Operant Conditioning: Thorndike, Skinner, and the Consequences of Behavior LO 5.7 Reinforcer Anything that follows a response and strengthens it or increases the probability that it will be repeated 5.7 What did Thorndike and Skinner discover about the consequences of behavior?

Reinforcement Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement A pleasant or desirable consequence that increases the probability that a response will be repeated Negative reinforcement Termination of an unpleasant condition after a response, which increases the probability that the response will be repeated

Punishment Positive punishment Punishment is the removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a response Positive punishment Decrease in behavior that results from an added consequence (usually something person does not want) Negative punishment Decrease in behavior that results from a removed consequence (loss of something desirable)

TABLE 5.1 The Effects of Reinforcement and Punishment 20

Alternatives to Punishment Removing the rewarding consequences of undesirable behavior may be the best way to extinguish it Not giving in to a child’s demands during a tantrum Ignoring misbehavior that is performed merely to get attention and giving attention to more appropriate behaviors Using positive reinforcement can make good behavior more rewarding

Making Punishment More Effective Punishment is most effective when applied during the misbehavior or as soon afterward as possible Punishment should be of the minimum severity necessary to suppress the problem behavior To be effective, punishment must be applied consistently

Applications of Operant Conditioning Behavior modification Changing behavior based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning Has been used to change self-injurious behavior in children and adults with autism Token economy A program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens

Classical and Operant Conditioning Compared 24

Observational Learning Albert Bandura: Many behaviors are acquired through observational learning Learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation Model is the individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated (effectiveness of model related to status, competence, and power)

Learning from Television and Electronic Games Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” studies Children imitate aggressive behavior of an adult model seen on film Recent research Individuals who watch the most violence as children are more likely to engage in acts of violence as adults Children also imitate prosocial behavior As seen on shows such as Sesame Street

Learning from Television and Electronic Games Recent research suggest that playing violent video games increases feelings of hostility and decreases sensitivity to violent images But, like television, video games can also teach positive messages and skills Can teach teenagers to drive more safely Can enhance spatial cognitive skills

Learning from Media: Effects of the Multitasking Environment LO 5.17 More time spent multitasking may leave a subject less capable of managing thought processes when not multitasking. May reduce ability to differentiate between relevant and irrelevant information 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Learning from Media: Television and Other Entertainment Media LO 5.17 Recent Research brain imaging: patterns of neural activation develop by watching violent media Children also imitate prosocial behavior. Media may teach children not to engage in aggressive acts. 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Learning from Media: Electronic Games LO 5.17 Recent research suggests that playing violent video games increases feelings of hostility and decreases sensitivity to violent images. Games can also teach positive messages and skills. Games often played in male peer groups may be essential for social development. 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Learning from Media: Electronic Games LO 5.17 Games can also teach positive messages and skills. can teach safe driving skills can enhance women's spatial cognitive skills 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Figure 5.8 “Gamers” in Four Age Groups Researchers at the Pew Internet & American Life Project track all kinds of media use among children and adults in the United States. One of their findings is that younger adults are more likely to play video games at least occasionally than those who are older. However, older adults who play are more likely to do so every day than younger adults are. Source: Data from Lenhart, A., Jones, S., & Macgill, A. (2008). 32

Learning from Media: The Internet LO 5.17 Educators should not assume that Internet-based instruction is more effective than conventional approaches (Mayer, 2010). Physical manipulations of the computer distracts online readers. hinders ability to comprehend and remember what they are reading 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?

Learning from Media: The Internet LO 5.17 Younger children using Web-based materials are more likely to be distracted by ads than older children. Conventional classroom lectures and textbooks are just as useful for learning complex material as multimedia presentations. 5.17 What has research shown regarding learning from media?