the consensus view of memory + a self module + the constructive memory framework (CMF) = The best functional Account of memory there is… The End (of lecture 7…)

Episodic Memory Mechanisms Consolidation Mechanisms Attentional Control EncodingStorageRetrieval Attentional Control Semantic Records Perceptual Records Binding Context Semantic Records Perceptual Records Binding Context

CMF adheres to the consensus view l ENCODING l Forming multiple individual records of attended information (see also Moscovitchs model) l Associating (binding) each individual record with the current spatiotemporal context l Keeping each set of bound records distinct from all the others already in memory (pattern separation)

l CONSOLIDATION l Abstraction of semantic gist l Formation of multiple retrieval pathways l Offline playback mechanisms during sleep and quiet states CMF adheres to the consensus view

l RETRIEVAL l Retrieval focus l Access to the records of attended information via a retrieval cue (by hippocampal pattern completion) l Inhibition of irrelevant information l Re-activation of episodic content (held in the neocortex) l Monitoring/evaluating retrieval products (prefrontally mediated)

CMF Neuroanatomy The hippocampal formation l Indexing of episodes: exactly how is unknown l Necessary both for encoding and retrieval l Damage leads to dense retrograde and anterograde amnesia The frontal lobes l Strategic control over memory: exactly how is again unknown! l Damage leads to confabulations, delusions, heightened false memory, source amnesia The entire association neocortex l Representation of experienced content l Damage should lead to loss of specific content of prior episodes

View of Long-Term Memory ENCODING RETRIEVAL Seeing Word Hearing Word MTL But can we get beyond this cartoon state of knowledge, for example adding in the CMF?

the End (of lecture 7…)

How does episodic memory actually work in vivo, and in real-time?

Maps of the Mind Memory and Cognition Lecture 8

Electrophysiological Haemodynamic Cognitive Neuroscience Methods… of seeing inside the box of tricks…

Psychophysiology Aim is to develop mind reading technologies We are most interested in the PPY of Perception and Cognition. In other words, Cognitive Neuroscience Can we tell what a person is thinking or experiencing just by looking at their brain activity?

Phrenology Was Odd… There is no known mechanism that would sculpt the contours of the skull according to underlying brain shape –i.e. there is no correlation between local contours of the skull and the underlying size or shape of the brain Their psychological model was based on common sense constructs of personality –I.e. Looking in the wrong place for the wrong thing!

But not entirely wrong… The idea of functional localisation has survived, but in a different form –Localisation does not respect character traits, like honesty, peevishness –Localisation may respect, for example, sensory modality, cognitive systems (e.g. LTM), along with other psychological mechanisms yet to be elucidated

Acceptable modern principles of functional neuroanatomy Functional Segregation l Discrete cognitive functions are localised to specific parts/circuits of the brain (complex tasks are divided and conquered) Functional Integration l Coordinated interactions between functionally specialised areas (e.g. during retrieval from episodic memory, reading, perceptual binding etc)

Where We At? We want to read a persons mind from the activity of their brain Their mind is composed of lots of interacting cognitive processes Each distinct process is carried out by networks of brain regions, each region is probably performing specific functions, but they all work together So we need a device or a technique that can detect changes in brain activity specific to any cognitive process

So What Do We Need? In an experiment we (think we) engage different functions in different conditions. For every condition we –Detect rapid changes in neuronal activity (requires a temporal resolution of milliseconds, 1/100ths of a second) –Locate activity within brain structures that are engaged (may require an anatomical (spatial) resolution of millimeters or better) Currently no such technique exists. Instead we rely on converging data from many techniques

S Electrophysiological Techniques SEEG S non-invasive recordings from an array of scalp electrodes

Averaging EEG produces ERPs Portions of the EEG time-locked to an event are averaged together, extracting the neural signature for the event. 10uV + - TIME (sec) 021 DOG AIR SHOE AVERAGE

What do ERP waveforms tell us? CONDITION A CONDITION B 012 TIME (seconds) 5uV + - ONSET OF EVENT INFORMATION ABOUT THE NEURAL BASIS OF PROCESSING IS PROVIDED BY THE DIFFERENCE IN ACTIVITY

Functional Inferences Based Upon Electrophysiology STiming SUpper limit on time it takes for neural processing to differ STime course of a process (onset, duration, offset) SLevel at which a process is engaged SEngagement of multiple processes at different times or in different conditions Early Topography Late Topography

S Another Electrophysiological Technique

S Electrophysiological Techniques SPrinciple advantages Snon-invasive Shigh temporal resolution Sdirect reflection of neuronal activity Seasy to produce event-related potentials by selective averaging of EEG epochs. Stopographic mapping SCheap (for EEG but not MEG)

The Brains Plumbing

Haemodynamic Techniques ¤ Oxygen and glucose are supplied by the blood as fuel (energy) for the brain ¤ The brain does not store fuel, so ¤ Blood supply changes as needs arise ¤ Changes are regionally specific - following the local dynamics of neuronal activity within a region ¤ Haemodynamic techniques localise brain activity by detecting these regional changes in cerebral blood supply

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) ¤ Samples the entire brain volume homogeneously ¤ Has an effective anatomical resolution of about 10mm or so in group studies ¤ An indirect measure of neuronal activity ¤Due to radiation dose, only a limited number of scans can be taken from each subject

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) l Put head into a strong magnetic field l Water protons align themselves with respect to the field l alignment is then perturbed by radio- frequency pulses l non-invasive and fast (few seconds) l protons relax back into alignment, giving off a signal l relaxation signals can reveal l tissue type l physiological state (e.g. blood oxygenation) l 3D position in the magnetic field

Our starting point … Electrophysiological and Haemodynamic techniques l Have different temporal and spatial resolutions l Measure different physiological signals l Constrain experimental design and functional inferences in different ways l May provide complementary information when functional maps from each technique can be formally co-registered ERP PET

Consensus View of Long-Term Memory ENCODING RETRIEVAL Seeing Word Hearing Word MTL But can we get beyond this cartoon state of knowledge, for example adding in the CMF?

Focussed Search Retrieve / InhibitMonitor Stimuli 0 Time Retrieval success!!Retrieval failure

cue onset Ecphory/ inhibition Monitoring Retrieval Perception/ attention Pattern completion/ Binding selective attention Stimuli Time CMF{retrieval}

Stimuli Time Ecphory? Monitoring? Implicit Memory? Familiarity?