McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Explaining Behavior

2 A set of methods used to Collect information about phenomena in an area Build a reliable base of information in an area Develop theories to explain phenomena Information acquired via research Identifying a problem to study Developing hypotheses Conducting research and analyzing results Disseminating results

3 A person who does science Adopts scientific methods to acquire information Engages in a wide range of activities Works in a variety of settings Science is a way of thinking Careful definition of a problem Seeking out relevant information Rigorously testing hypotheses Leads a person to be skeptical about popular media

4 Scientists use many techniques to do science Measure two or more variables and look for a relationship among them Conduct controlled experiments to look for causal connections among variables

5 Basic research Conducted to evaluate theories or empirical positions Goal is to acquire information about a phenomenon Little emphasis on application to real-world problems

6 Applied Research Evaluates real-world problem Hypotheses may come from theory, but goal is to apply results to real-world problem Substantial overlap between basic and applied research Each type of research has implications for the other

7 Everyday explanations use little information and may reflect opinions and biases Strategies used to develop lack rigor Little effort made to test accuracy Do not consider possible alternatives Tend to seek out information to confirm explanations This is the confirmation bias Avoiding the trap of untested explanations requires adopting the scientific method

8 You are exposed to research every day Scientific controversies Scientific polls Information on new cures Pitches to buy a product You must know about research to deal with everyday research issues rationally It is beneficial to learn about research whether you plan a career in research or not

9 Science of psychology has two goals Build knowledge about behavior Develop valid, reliable explanations for behavior Hunting trip analogy (Cialdini, 1994) Scouting Make systematic observations of naturally occurring behavior Trapping Identify factors that might affect behavior scouted Develop a study to evaluate the factors believed to affect behavior

10 A true science employs rigorous scientific methods Nonscience is a legitimate academic discipline applying systematic techniques to gathering information Pseudoscience is a set of ideas presented as science, but are not really science Phrenology Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing therapy (EMDR) Astrology

11 1) Using situation-specific hypotheses to explain away falsification of a pseudoscientific idea or claim 2) No mechanisms for self-correction and consequent stagnation of ideas or claims 3) Reliance on a confirmational strategy rather than a disconfirmational one to test ideas or claims 4) Shifting the burden of proof to skeptics and critics away from the proponent of an idea or a claim 5) Reliance on anecdotal evidence and testimonials to support an idea or claim

12 6) Avoidance of the peer review process that would scientifically scrutinize ideas and claims 7) A failure to build on an existing base of scientific knowledge 8) Excessive use of impressive sounding jargon that lends false credibility to ideas and claims 9) Failure to specify conditions under which ideas or claims would not hold true Source: Lilienfeld (2005)

13 SciencePseudoscience Findings published in peer reviewed publications using standards for honesty and accuracy aimed at scientists. Findings disseminated to general public via sources that are not peer reviewed. No pre- publication review for precision or accuracy. Experiments must be precisely described and be reproducible. Reliable results are demanded. Studies, if any, are vaguely defined and cannot be reproduced easily. Results cannot be reproduced Scientific failures are carefully scrutinized and studied for reasons for failure. Failures are ignored, minimized, explained away, rationalized or hidden. Over time and continued research more and more is learned about scientific phenomena. No underlying mechanisms are identified and no new research is done. No progress is made and nothing concrete is learned.

14 Idiosyncratic findings and blunders “average out” and do not affect the actual phenomenon under study. Idiosyncratic findings and blunders provide the only identifiable phenomena. Scientists convince others based evidence and research findings, making the best case permitted by existing data. Old ideas discarded in the light of new evidence. Attempts to convince based on belief and faith rather than facts. Belief encouraged in spite of facts, not because of them. Ideas never discarded, regardless of the evidence. Scientist has no personal stake in a specific outcome of a study. Serious conflicts of interest. Pseudoscientist makes his or her living off of pseudoscientific products or services. Source: Corker (2007)

15 Scientific explanations are EMPIRICAL They are based on objective, systematic observations Scientific explanations are RATIONAL They follow the rules of logic and are consistent with known facts Scientific explanations are TESTABLE They are verifiable through observation and can be disproved

16 Scientific explanations are PARSIMONIOUS They provide the simplest explanation using the fewest possible assumptions Scientific explanations are GENERAL They apply beyond the original observations on which they are based Scientific explanations are TENTATIVE They are never accepted as absolutely correct Scientific explanations are RIGOROUSLY EVALUATED They are constantly evaluated for consistency with evidence, generality, and parsimony

17 Explanatio n Type Empirica l RationalTestableParsimon y GeneralTentativ e Rigorousl y Evaluated Scientific Yes Belief Based No Common- sense No MaybeNo Maybe

18 Faulty inference Scientific explanations involve inference process If inference is wrong, explanation fails Pseudoexplanation Alternative label for behavior masks as an explanation Based on circular reasoning Must have independent measures of behavior and explanatory concept to avoid this trap

19 Aggressive Behavior Aggressive Instinct Causes Proves the Existence of A Circular Explanation

20 Method of Authority Authoritative source (e.g., book or expert) consulted Useful in early stages of science Does not always provide valid answers Source may not be authoritative Source may be biased by a point of view Can be used to generate new ideas that can later be tested empirically

21 Rational Method Pioneered by Descartes Steps involved Willingness to doubt the truth of anything Search for “self-evident” truths Deduce a new truth from the self-evident truths Power of the method lies in logical deduction of truths from self-evident truths Unfortunately, few self-evident truths exist The rational method is not used to develop scientific explanations The method is used to develop testable hypotheses

22 The Scientific Method The goal of science is to develop general laws Only the scientific method can lead to general laws The scientific method consists of four steps Observing a phenomenon Formulating testable explanations (hypotheses) Further observing and experimenting Refining and retesting explanations The scientific method can be tedious and time consuming But the results are worth the effort

23 1) Observing a Phenomenon While observing a phenomenon, you identify the VARIABLES that appear important in explaining behavior 2) Formulating Tentative Explanations Initial observations allow you to develop a HYPOTHESIS, or tentative statement, about the relationships among the variables identified

24 3) Further Observing and Experimenting You carry out more detailed OBSERVATIONS of the behavior of interest These observations are directed at testing your hypothesis 4) Refining and Retesting Explanations Supported hypotheses are often REFINED and subjected to further exploration Disconfirmed hypotheses may be reworked and RETESTED

25 Developing an idea and a hypothesis Choosing an appropriate research design Choosing an appropriate subject population Deciding on what to observe Conducting a study Analyzing data Reporting results

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