Principles of Exercise Training

CHAPTER 9 Overview Terminology General principles of training Resistance training Anaerobic and aerobic power training programs

Terminology: Muscular Strength Strength: maximal force that a muscle or muscle group can generate –Static strength –Dynamic strength (varies by speed and joint angle) 1 repetition maximum (1RM): maximal weight that can be lifted with a single effort –Start with proper warm-up –Add weight until only 1 repetition can be performed

Terminology: Muscular Power Muscular power: rate of performing work –Explosive aspect of strength –Power = force x (distance/time) Power more important than strength for many activities Field tests not very specific to power Typically measured with electronic devices

Figure 9.1

Terminology: Muscular Endurance Endurance: capacity to perform repeated muscle contractions (or sustain a single contraction over time) Number of repetitions at given % 1RM Increased through –Gains in muscle strength –Changes in local metabolic, cardiovascular function

Table 9.1

Terminology: Aerobic Power Aerobic power: rate of energy release by oxygen-dependent metabolic processes Maximal aerobic power: maximal capacity for aerobic resynthesis of ATP –Synonyms: aerobic capacity, maximal O 2 uptake, VO 2max –Primary limitation: cardiovascular system –Can be tested in lab or estimated from wide variety of field tests

Terminology: Anaerobic Power Anaerobic power: rate of energy release by oxygen-independent metabolic processes Maximal anaerobic power: maximal capacity of anaerobic systems to produce ATP –Also known as anaerobic capacity –Maximal accumulated O 2 deficit test –Critical power test –Wingate anaerobic test

General Principles of Training: Principle of Individuality Not all athletes created equal Genetics affects performance Variations in cell growth rates, metabolism, and cardiorespiratory and neuroendocrine regulation Explains high versus low responders

General Principles of Training: Principle of Specificity Exercise adaptations specific to mode and intensity of training Training program must stress most relevant physiological systems for given sport Training adaptations highly specific to type of activity, training volume, and intensity

General Principles of Training: Principle of Reversibility Use it or lose it Training  improved strength and endurance Detraining reverses all gains

General Principles of Training: Principle of Progressive Overload Must increase demands on body to make further improvements Muscle overload: muscles must be loaded beyond normal loading for improvement Progressive training: as strength , resistance/repetitions must  to further  strength

General Principles of Training: Principle of Variation Also called principle of periodization Systematically changes one or more variables to keep training challenging –Intensity, volume, and/or mode –  Volume/  intensity –  Volume/  intensity Macrocycles versus mesocycles

Resistance Training Programs: Training Needs Analysis First appropriate step in designing and prescribing appropriate resistance training program identifies –Muscle groups to target –Type of training –Energy system to stress –Injury prevention needs Specifics of resistance training program design based on needs analysis

Resistance Training Programs: Strength, Hypertrophy, and Power Should involve concentric (CON), eccentric (ECC), and isometric contractions –CON strength maximized by ECC –ECC benefits action-specific movements Exercise order –Large muscle groups before small, multijoint before single joint, high intensity before low intensity Rest periods based on experience –Novice, intermediate lifters: 2 to 3 min between sets –Advanced lifters: 1 to 2 minutes between sets

Resistance Training Programs: Static-Contraction Resistance Muscle force without muscle shortening Also called isometric training Early evidence showed great promise –Later evidence did not support early findings –Isometric training nonetheless still popular Ideal for immobilized rehab situations

Resistance Training Programs: Free Weights Versus Machines Free weights (constant resistance) –Tax muscle extremes but not midrange –Recruit supporting and stabilizing muscles –Better for advanced weight lifters Machines –May involve variable resistance –Safer, easier, more stable, better for novices –Limit recruitment to targeted muscle groups

Figure 9.2

Resistance Training Programs: Dynamic Eccentric Training Emphasizes ECC phase of contraction –In this phase, muscle’s ability to resist force greater than with CON training –Theoretically produces  strength gains versus CON Early ECC versus CON research equivocal More support from recent studies –ECC + CON workouts maximize strength gains –ECC important for muscle hypertrophy

Resistance Training Programs: Variable-Resistance Training Resistance  in weakest ranges of motion,  in strongest ranges Muscle works against higher percentage of its capacity at each point in range of motion Basis for several popular machines

Figure 9.3

Resistance Training Programs: Isokinetic Training Movement at a constant speed –Angular velocity can range from 0 to 300°/s –Strong force opposed by more resistance –Weak force opposed by less resistance Resistance from electronics, air, or hydraulics Theoretically allows maximal contraction at all points in range of motion

Resistance Training Programs: Plyometrics Also known as stretch-shortening cycle exercise –Uses stretch reflex to recruit motor units –Stores energy during ECC, released during CON –Example: deep squat to jump to deep squat Proposed to bridge gap between speed and strength training

Figure 9.4

Resistance Training Programs: Electrical Stimulation Pass current across muscle or motor nerve –Ideal for recovery from injury or surgery –Reduces strength loss during immobilization –Restores strength and size during rehab No evidence of further supplemental gains in healthy, training athletes

Resistance Training Programs: Core Stability and Strength Core: trunk muscles around spine and viscera –Abdominal muscles –Gluteal muscles, hip girdle –Paraspinal, other accessory muscles Yoga, Pilates, tai chi, physioball Proximal stability aids distal mobility

Resistance Training Programs: Core Stability and Strength May decrease likelihood of injury Increases muscle spindle sensitivity –Permits greater state of readiness for joint loading –Protects body from injury Core musculature mostly type I fibers, responds well to multiple sets and high reps

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training Train sport-specific metabolic systems Programs designed along a continuum from short sprints to long distances –Sprints: ATP-PCr (anaerobic) –Long sprint/middle distance: glycolytic (anaerobic) –Long distance: oxidative system (aerobic)

Table 9.2

Table 9.2 (continued)

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Interval Training Repeated bouts of high/moderate intensity interspersed with rest/reduced intensity –More total exercise performed by breaking into bouts –Same vocabulary as resistance training: sets, repetitions, time, distance, frequency, interval, rest Example –Set 1: 6 x 400 m at 75 s (90 s slow jog) –Set 2: 6 x 800 m at 180 s (200 s jog-walk)

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Interval Training Appropriate for all sports and activities For given sport, first choose mode, then adjust –Rate of exercise interval –Distance of exercise interval –Number of repetitions and sets per training session –Duration of rest/active recovery –Type of activity during active recovery –Frequency of training per week

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Exercise Interval Intensity Determined by duration/distance or % HR max Duration and distance more practical –One method: Use best time at a set distance, adjust duration by desired intensity –Intensity depends on fitness, number sets/reps, etc. –ATP-PCr system training ~90 to 98% intensity –Anaerobic glycolytic training ~80 to 95% intensity –Aerobic oxidative training ~75 to 85% intensity

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Exercise Interval Intensity % HR max a better index of physiological stress –HR max determined by lab test, all-out run –ATP-PCr training ~90 to 100% HR max –Anaerobic glycolytic training ~85 to 100% HR max –Aerobic-oxidative training ~70 to 90% HR max Heart rate monitors helpful for recording HR for duration of workout

Figure 9.5

Figure 9.6

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Distance of Interval Determined by requirements of activity Sprint training: 30 to 200 m (even 400 m) Distance training: 400 to 1,500+ m

Repetitions and Sets per Session Largely sport specific Short, intense intervals  more repetitions and sets Longer intervals  fewer repetitions and sets

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Duration of Rest Interval Depends on how rapidly athlete recovers –Based on HR recovery (fitness and age dependent) –<30 years: HR should drop to 130 to 150 beats/min –>30 years: subtract 1 beat for every year over 30 For active recovery between sets, HR <120 beats/min

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Activity During Rest Interval Exercise intensity   recovery intensity  With better fitness,  intensity or  rest duration Land training: slow or rapid walk or jog Swimming: slow swimming or total rest

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Frequency of Training Depends on purpose of interval training World-class runner: 5 to 7 times/week Swimmers: interval training every workout Team sports: 2 to 4 times/week

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Continuous Training Training without intervals Targets oxidative, glycolytic systems –Can be high or low intensity –High intensity near race (85 to 95% HR max ) –Low intensity: LSD training

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: LSD Training Long, slow distance Train at ~60 to 80% HR max (50 to 75% VO 2max ) –Popular, safe –However, must train near race pace, too Main objective: distance, not speed –Up to 15 to 30 mi/day, 100 to 200 mi/week –Less cardiorespiratory stress –Greater joint/muscle stress, overuse injuries

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Fartlek Training Vary pace from sprint to jog at discretion Continuous training + interval elements Primarily used by distance runners –Fun, engaging, variety –Supplements other types of training

Anaerobic and Aerobic Power Training: Interval-Circuit Training Combined interval and circuit training –Circuit length 3,000 to 10,000 m –Interval stations every 400 to 1,600 m –Stations involve strength, flexibility, or endurance Jog, run, or sprint between stations Often set in parks or countryside