Individual Differences: Mental Functioning, Emotional Intelligence, Personality Perception, Attitudes, and Values B = f (P,E) (Behavior is a function of the person and the environment.)

Why is the study of Individual Differences of interest to managers? l Selection l Placement l Training l Motivation l Leadership

Mental Ability l General Intelligence (g factor) »Correlates with most tests of specific ability »Correlates with performance in most jobs l Specific Intelligences (s factors) »e.g., memory verbal comprehension, numerical ability, word comprehension, perceptual speed »Correlate with Job Satisfaction in work utilizing the specific ability in question

Cognitive Styles l How do we gather information? »Sensing - Look at the facts, details. »Intuiting - Brainstorm, get a general overview. l How do we choose between alternatives? »Thinking - Analyze objectively, reason. »Feeling - Consider the impact on people.

Cognitive Styles l Sensation / Thinking (ST) (e.g., technician) l Intuitive / Thinking (NT) (e.g., planner) l Sensation / Feeling (SF) (e.g., teacher) l Intuitive / Feeling (NF) (e.g., artist)

Myers-Briggs Test l Has 4 dimensions: »Sensing vs. Intuiting »Thinking vs. Feeling »Extraversion vs. Introversion »Judger vs. Perceiver –(decisive vs. flexible) l Higher and lower positions in each of the dimensions are used to classify people into one of 16 different personality categories l Higher and lower positions in each of the dimensions are used to classify people into one of 16 different personality categories.

Emotional Intelligence Dimensions 1) Knowing one’s own emotions 2) Controlling one’s emotions 3) Recognizing others’ emotions (Empathy) 4) Influencing others’ emotions Author Daniel Goleman says incompetence in management occurs more often from lack of EQ than lack of IQ

Personality l Nature of Personality »Internal State »Uniqueness »Consistency »Stability l Managers should be aware of subordinates’ characteristics. l Managers should also be aware of their own characteristics.

Personality Theories l Developmental Stage (Psychodynamic) »(Freud, etc.) l Trait-Based (“Big Five”, etc.) »e.g., Neurotic, Extraversion, Authoritarian (Eysenck) l Motive-Based »e.g., Achievement, Affiliation, Power (McClelland) l Belief-Based »e.g., Internal vs. External Locus of Control (Rotter)

Personality Theory: The Big Five Traits: uExtraversion (vs. Introversion) u Sociable, friendly. uEmotional Stability (vs. Neuroticism): u Neurotics are often critical and feel angry with others and themselves. uAgreeableness u Likable, care about others. uConscientiousness u Careful, persevering. uOpenness to Experience: u Flexible, with broad interests.

Other Characteristics » Self-Monitoring: Tendency to manage impressions others have of you » Risk taking and thrill seeking » Self-Esteem: Degree to which people feel good about themselves and abilities.

Locus of Control l People who believe that they are in control of their own lives are said to have an Internal locus of control. l People who think that forces beyond their control dictate what happens to them are said to have an External locus of control.

Testing Intelligence and Personality l When using in selection and placement: Back up with validity studies. l In General: »Intelligence Tests- Moderate Validity »Personality Tests- Low Validity

Perception l “The link between the person and the environment” l Broadly defined, includes Social Perception (impressions of people)

The Perception Process Observing “data” via the senses Screening the “data” and selecting what to process Organizing the selected “data” into patterns for interpretation and response

Perception l Why are perceptions often distorted? »Why do people not always perceive things as they are? »Why do people perceive things differently? –Different people –Same person at different times

Sources of Perceptual Distortions l Selectivity (perceiving only part of envir. or some parts more than others) »External Factors (i.e., currently in physical environment) –Similarity, Size, Nearness, Motion »Internal Factors –Experience, Motivation l Closure (adding to your perception) »Stereotyping »Halo Effects »Projection

General Perception Problems l Selectivity »Only notice stimuli which are consistent with our values and beliefs l Closure »Assume that what we don’t know is consistent with what we do know

Values and Attitudes Values and Attitudes l Values (Basic Convictions – What is right, good, desirable) »General - Contain many attitudes »e.g., Conservative, Liberal, etc. l Attitudes (Beliefs, Assumptions) »Evaluative judgments focused on specific objects, concepts »e.g., Attitude toward welfare payments

l Terminal Values »Desired Goals »e.g., World Peace, Happiness, Freedom, True Friendship, Equality, Family Security l Instrumental Values »Means of Achieving Terminal Values »e.g., Ambition, Politeness, Self-Reliance, Honesty, Cheerfulness, Open-Mindedness Types of Values

Group Entered WorkforceValues Veterans Loyal to Organization Conforming Conforming Boomers Loyal to Careers Dislike Authority Dislike Authority Xers Loyal to Relationships Seek Work-Life Balance Seek Work-Life Balance Nexters 2000-Present Loyal to Self & Relationships Self-Reliant but Self-Reliant but Team-oriented Team-oriented Work Values Across Generations

Attitudes: The ABC Model Attitudes: The ABC Model l Affect »Feelings for an object l Behavioral Intentions »Observed Behavior toward it l Cognition »Beliefs about it

Attitude Change Techniques Attitude Change Techniques l Persuasion »Cognition -> Behavior l Conditioning »Affective -> Cognition -> Behavior l Cognitive Dissonance Production »Behavior -> Cognition -> Affective (Based on the assumption that people are motivated to protect their self-concepts. This requires a perceived consistency among the three components.) (Based on the assumption that people are motivated to protect their self-concepts. This requires a perceived consistency among the three components.)