©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Chapter Introduction Thinking, language, and intelligence are often studied under the larger topic of cognition (mental activities involved in acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using knowledge).

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thinking Cognitive building blocks Thinking processes are distributed throughout the brain, especially the frontal lobe.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thinking—Three Components (Mental Image) 1. Mental Image: mental representation of a previously stored sensory experience, including visual, auditory, etc.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) 2. Concepts: mental representation of a group or category that shares similar characteristics – How do we learn concepts? a. Artificial concepts--formed by logical, specific rules b. Natural concepts/prototypes--formed by everyday life experiences c. Hierarchies--group concepts into subcategories within broader categories Thinking—Three Components (Concepts)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thinking—Three Components An Example of Hierarchies

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) 3. Language: form of communication using sounds and symbols combined according to specified rules Thinking—Three Components (Language)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thinking—Problem Solving Step 1: Preparation--identifying, separating, and defining Step 2: Production--generating possible solutions (hypotheses) by using algorithms and heuristics Step 3: Evaluation--judging hypotheses in Step 2 against the criteria in Step 1 Problem Solving

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Heuristics vs. algorithms Heuristics: general problem solving strategies that are often useful but not always effective (in football: control line of scrimmage, avoid turnovers, in chess: control center of board.) Algorithms: step by step procedures guaranteed to solve a specific problem (recipe to bake a cake, formula to solve for area of triangle)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Examples of Heuristics 1. Means-end analysis: breaking problem down into series of sub-problems. 2. Analogies: using past experience as model for current problem-solving Research on use of analogies (past experience) contradictory.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) When is past experience harmful? Dunker (1945) Make a lamp problem.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving 2. Functional Fixedness: thinking of an object as only functioning in its usual way Can you use these supplies to mount the candle on the wall so that it can be lit in a normal way without toppling over?

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving (Functional Fixedness Continued) To overcome functional fixedness, think of the matchbox, tacks, and candle all functioning in new ways.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) When is past experience harmful? Mental set: retaining a old successful problem-solving procedure even though it is not effective in its current context. Water jar example here!

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Experimental testing for mental set: Luchin’s (1942) water jar problem:

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving 1. Mental Set: persistence in using strategies that have worked in the past Using no more than four lines, can you connect all nine dots without lifting your pencil from the paper?

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving (Mental Sets Continued) To overcome a mental set you must “think outside the box”— literally!

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) When is past experience helpful to problem solving? 1. Gick & Holyoak (1980) studies of problems solving with and without past experience 2. Chi’s (1985) studies of expertise and problem solving

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Problem solving in Physics professors vs. students: Problem categorization

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Problem solving in Physics professors vs. students: Problem categorization

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Problem solving in Physics professors vs. students: Problem categorization

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Framing Effects in Problem solving Imagine that the U.S. is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual… disease which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs have been proposed. Assume that the exact scientific estimate of the consequences of the program is as follows: If Program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved. If Program B is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that 600 people will be saved and a 2/3 probability that no people will be saved. Which of the two programs would you favor? Imagine the identical situation with the following choices: If program C is adopted, 400 people will die. If program D is adopted, there is a 1/3 probability that nobody will die, and a 2/3 probability that 600 people will die. Which of the two programs would you favor?

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) 3. Confirmation Bias: preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring contradictory evidence 4. Availability Heuristic: judging the likelihood of an event based on how readily available other instances are in memory Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thinking—Five Key Barriers to Problem Solving 5. Representativeness Heuristic: estimating the probability of something based on how well the circumstances match (or represent) a previous prototype

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Reasoning: manipulating mental representations in order to draw conclusions or derive new knowledge Two types: 1. Syllogistic reasoning: premises – conclusion 2. Conditional reasoning: if-then statements used draw conclusions

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Syllogistic reasoning Premise: statement assumed to be true for sake of argument, not necessarily empirically true Premise: All boys are athletes Premise also usually expresses a relationship between certain concepts, so boys are related to athletes in that all boys are a member of the category athletes.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Syllogistic reasoning Conclusion: to be valid must be necessitated by the premises. Must be only possible conclusion drawn base on relationships expressed in premises. Conclusion: a valid conclusion cannot just be reasonable or plausible based on premises, it must be necessary.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Syllogistic reasoning P1: All boys are athletes P2: All athletes are muscular C: All boys are muscular Valid: Use Venn Diagrams to determine.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Syllogistic reasoning P1: All boys are athletes P2: All muscular people are athletes C: All boys are muscular people Valid? See website for more reasoning problems

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Conditional reasoning If: antecedent condition Then: consequent When the antecedent condition is met, the consequent will occur (no question about it!) Observation – what condition is actually present Conclusion: (valid or not valid)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Conditional reasoning If she has red hair Then she buys new shoes Observation: she has red hair (affirming antecedent) Conclusion: she buys new shoes (valid?)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) If she has red hair Then she buys new shoes Observation: she has not red hair (denying the antecedent) Conclusion: she buys not new shoes (valid?)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) If she has red hair Then she buys new shoes Observation: she buys new shoes (affirming the consequent) Conclusion: she has red hair (valid?) More conditional reasoning problems at my website.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) If she has red hair Then she buys new shoes Observation: she buys not new shoes (denying the consequent) Conclusion: she has not red hair (valid)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Wason Selection Task Rule: if there is vowel on one side then there is an even number on the other side of the card

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Abstract reasoning vs. Social contracts reasoning

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Social contracts version of Wason Selection task

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Thinking—Creativity Creativity :ability to produce valued outcomes in a novel way Three elements of creativity: Originality Fluency Flexibility

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Thinking—Creativity Divergent Thinking: ability to produce many alternatives or ideas; linked to creativity (e.g., reordering the letters “grevenidt” to form many new words) Convergent Thinking: attempting to find one correct answer; linked to conventional, non-creative thinking (e.g., = ?)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Thinking— Creativity How did you do? Did you think of this creative solution to the 10 coin problem?

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Language What is language: a symbolic rule-based system of communication shared by a community Question: can one person have language?

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Language: Three Building Blocks 1. Phoneme :smallest unit of speech or sound 2. Morpheme: smallest meaningful unit of language 3. Grammar: rules specifying how phonemes, morphemes, words, and phrases should be combined to express thoughts – Syntax: rules for word order – Semantics: system of using words to create meaning

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Properties of language 1. Arbitrariness: fundamental units of language have arbitrary relationship to what they represent e.g. dog = 2. Generativity = from a set of finite fundamental units, infinite meaning is possible 3. Generational transmission: passed on from one generation to the next

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Properties of language 4. Displacement: can communicate about ideas not in here and now 5. Semanticity: meaningfulness drives all communication

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Studies in Animal Language A number of species have been studies: dolphins, parrots, whales, etc Most studies have involved nonhuman apes: Chimpanzees, Gorillas, Bonobos Why: close relatives of humans, big brains, highly social

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) History of Ape language studies Cross-fostering: raising an ape as a human baby 1950’s Keith and Cathy Hayes: Viki project, teaching a chimpanzee to speak. Big disaster. Beatrix and Alan Gardner: Washoe project, teaching an ape sign language

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) History of Ape language studies Francine Patterson and Koko: A gorilla learns sign language Herb Terrace and Nim Chimpsky

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) History of Ape language studies Sue Savage-Rumbaugh and the bonobo Kanzi

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) What do apes know about language? Some elementary syntax Some evidence of displacement word vocabulary Use is primarily utilitarian, not for sharing experience; 90% of Kanzi’s utterances are requests/commands About at level 2.5 child

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Language Development Prelinguistic Stage: crying, cooing, and babbling Linguistic Stage: single- utterances, telegraphic speech, and learning the rules of grammar

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Theories of Language Development Nature Perspective: language is an inborn capacity that develops primarily by maturation – Chomsky’s language acquisition device (LAD) Nurture Perspective: language develops from a complex system of rewards, punishments, and imitation

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Animals and Language Some of the most successful nonhuman animal language studies have used American Sign Language (ASL).

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Intelligence Intelligence: global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment Intelligence is a hypothetical, abstract construct.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) History of Intelligence Testing 1905: Alfred Binet creates test measure intellectual skills of children entering French public school system. Lewis Terman translates test and brings to Stanford University in CA (Stanford- Binet Test of Intelligence)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) History of Intelligence Testing David Wechsler (1939) creates intelligence test for adults composed of 11 subscales measuring both verbal and non- verbal (or performance) IQ. Most popular IQ tests today WAIS – adults; WISC – children; WPPSI – preschool children

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) WWII: First Group Aptitude Measures Army Alpha and Beta

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) What Is Intelligence? Historical views of intelligence: 1. S ingle ability or general factor called “g” (Spearman) 2. Multiple abilities (Thurstone and Guilford) 3. Single ability with two types of g, fluid and crystallized intelligence (Cattell) 4. Multiple abilities (Gardner and Sternberg)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Intelligence Models Gardner Sternberg

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

Measuring Intelligence Stanford-Binet and Wechsler most widely used individual intelligence tests. Both tests compute an intelligence quotient (IQ), which compares the deviation of a person’s test score to norms for that person’s age group. – Original version of Stanford-Binet (IQ = MA/CA x 100)

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Measuring Intelligence— The Normal Distribution of IQ Scores

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Measuring Intelligence— Sample Wechsler Tests

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) Measuring Intelligence Three scientific standards for psychological tests: 1. Standardization--establishes norms and uniform procedures for giving and scoring tests 2. Reliability--measure of the consistency and stability of test scores over time 3. Validity--ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) The Intelligence Controversy— Extremes in Intelligence Mental Retardation: IQs of 70 and below Mental Giftedness: IQs of 135 and above

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e)

The Intelligence Controversy: Explaining Differences Is it the brain? All mental activity (including intelligence) results from neural activity in the brain. Is it genetic or environmental influences? Heredity and environment are important, inseparable factors in intellectual development.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) An Example of a Brain Test for Intelligence Which “leg” of the drawing is longer (a) or (b)? The amount of time individuals require to make a correct choice between quickly flashed items like the ones on this screen may reveal something about their intelligence.

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) An Example of Genetic Vs. Environmental Influences on Intelligence

©John Wiley & Sons, Inc Huffman: Psychology in Action (8e) The Intelligence Controversy: Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased? Some ethnic groups score differently on IQ tests, but there are numerous contributing factors, including stereotype threat.