Ch. 7 Cognition and Language

1.Building Blocks of Thought A.Language A flexible system of symbols that enables us to communicate our ideas, thoughts, and feelings Nonhumans communicate primarily though signs Human language is semantic, or meaningful. It is also characterized by displacement Not limited to the here-and-now

When we wish to communicate an idea, we start with a thought, then choose words and phrases that will express the idea, and produce the speech sounds of those words and phrases. To understand speech, the task is reversed.

B.Structure of Language Phonemes - basic sounds (ph, t) Morphemes - smallest meaning unit (words, prefixes) Surface structure Phrases of sentence Deep structure Underlying meaning of a sentence Grammar -rules of how sounds combine

C.Images Mental pictures of perceptions D.Concepts Prototypes Model with most typical features

2.Problem Solving A.Algorithms and Heuristics Algorithms - formula that guarantees solution (math/science formulas) Heuristic- formula (rule of thumb) but does not guarantee solution Hill climbing Each step is closer to goal Subgoals Important because manageable

B.Experience and Expertise C.Obstacles to Solving Problems Mental sets Tendency to see things a certain way Match Problem Functional fixedness Only see a limited number of uses Elevator Problem – Write Down Your Solution Elevator Problem – Write Down Your Solution Elevator Solution

D.Becoming Better at Problem Solving Eliminate poor choices Evaluate by criteria and discard Visualize a solution Diagram

E.Creative Problem Solving Convergent thinking (one solution) Divergent thinking (creative, flexible) Brainstorming Produces many ideas Very popular in business Do NOT judge ideas as generated The creative process Produce something new and unique that is socially valued

3.Decision Making A.Weighing Pros and Cons Compensatory model Click here to view the Decision Making table Click here to view the Decision Making table B.Decision-Making Heuristic Representativeness heuristic Compare to stereotypical model Availability heuristic Based on most easily obtained info Confirmation bias Biased in favor of our belief Prejudice or self-esteem problems

C.Framing See the problem in a new context D.Decision Under Pressure Hindsight bias Counter factual thinking

4.Language, Thought, and Culture A.Language and Cognition Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis Patterns of thinking determined by specific language Figurative Language Creative Simile -“like a lion in combat” Irony - meaning the opposite “That was a great test”

B.Culture and Cognition All known cultures use categories to form concepts Culture shapes What information is included in a category How categories are shaped by experience

5.Nonhuman Thought and Language Animal cognition Animals can form concepts Apes have demonstrated sophisticated problem- solving skills Chimpanzees and orangutans show signs of self- awareness The question of cognition Chimpanzees have been taught to use American Sign Language Chimpanzees have been observed using telegraphic speech (two-word combinations)