© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Thinking: Memory, Cognition, and Language Chapter 6

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 2 The Foundations of Memory Learning Outcomes –Identify sensory memory –Define short-term memory –Define long-term memory Learning Outcomes –Identify sensory memory –Define short-term memory –Define long-term memory

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 3 The Foundations of Memory Memory: the process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 4 Sensory Memory Sensory memory: initial, momentary storage of information; lasts only an instant; stores almost exact replicas of all sensory stimuli experienced by that person

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 5 Short-Term Memory Short-term memory: second stage of memory; holds information for seconds –Capacity of 7 +/- 2 chunks (meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short- term memory) –Rehearsal: the repetition of information in short- term memory; repetitive rehearsal keeps information in short-term, elaborative rehearsal moves information to long-term memory Short-term memory: second stage of memory; holds information for seconds –Capacity of 7 +/- 2 chunks (meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short- term memory) –Rehearsal: the repetition of information in short- term memory; repetitive rehearsal keeps information in short-term, elaborative rehearsal moves information to long-term memory

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 6 Long-Term Memory Long-term memory: third stage of memory; stores information on a relatively permanent basis, but can be difficult to retrieve –Declarative memory Semantic memory Episodic memory –Procedural memory Long-term memory: third stage of memory; stores information on a relatively permanent basis, but can be difficult to retrieve –Declarative memory Semantic memory Episodic memory –Procedural memory

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 7 Recall and Forgetting Learning Outcomes –Explain retrieval cues –Discuss levels of processing –Compare and contrast implicit and explicit memory –Define flashbulb memories Learning Outcomes –Explain retrieval cues –Discuss levels of processing –Compare and contrast implicit and explicit memory –Define flashbulb memories

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 8 Recall and Forgetting Learning Outcomes (cont’d) –Describe the constructive process of memory –Define forgetting –Explain why we forget information –Compare and contrast proactive and retroactive interference Learning Outcomes (cont’d) –Describe the constructive process of memory –Define forgetting –Explain why we forget information –Compare and contrast proactive and retroactive interference

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 9 Retrieval Cues Retrieval cue: a stimulus that allows you to more easily recall a long-term memory because it is connected to that memory Recall: specific information must be retrieved from memory Recognition: when presented with a stimulus, you determine whether you’ve been exposed to it previously, or you identify the correct information from a list of alternatives Retrieval cue: a stimulus that allows you to more easily recall a long-term memory because it is connected to that memory Recall: specific information must be retrieved from memory Recognition: when presented with a stimulus, you determine whether you’ve been exposed to it previously, or you identify the correct information from a list of alternatives

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 10 Levels of Processing Levels-of-processing theory: emphasizes the degree to which new material is mentally analyzed; the greater the intensity of initial processing, the more likely we are to remember the information

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 11 Explicit and Implicit Memory Explicit memory: intentional or conscious recollection of information Implicit memory: memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior Explicit memory: intentional or conscious recollection of information Implicit memory: memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can affect subsequent performance and behavior

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 12 Flashbulb Memories Flashbulb memories: specific, important, or surprising events that are so vivid in memory it is as if they represented a snapshot of the event

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 13 Constructive Processes in Memory Constructive processes: memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events Schemas: organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled Autobiographical memories: our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives Constructive processes: memories are influenced by the meaning we give to events Schemas: organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, and recalled Autobiographical memories: our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our own lives

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 14 ForgettingForgetting Forgetting is important to memory; if we couldn’t forget inconsequential details, they would get in the way of remembering more important information

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 15 Why We Forget Failure of encoding (paying attention to and placing information in memory) Decay: the loss of information because of nonuse Interference: information in memory disrupts the recall of other information Cue-dependent forgetting: forgetting due to insufficient retrieval cues Failure of encoding (paying attention to and placing information in memory) Decay: the loss of information because of nonuse Interference: information in memory disrupts the recall of other information Cue-dependent forgetting: forgetting due to insufficient retrieval cues

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 16 InterferenceInterference Proactive interference: information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material Retroactive interference: difficulty in recalling information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material Proactive interference: information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material Retroactive interference: difficulty in recalling information learned earlier because of later exposure to different material

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 17 Thinking, Reasoning, and Problem Solving Learning Outcomes –Explain the concept of mental images –Discuss the process of categorizing the world –Describe the processes the underlie reasoning and decision making –Explain how people approach and solve problems Learning Outcomes –Explain the concept of mental images –Discuss the process of categorizing the world –Describe the processes the underlie reasoning and decision making –Explain how people approach and solve problems

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 18 Mental Images Mental images: representations in the mind of an object or event (can take the form of any of the senses: visual, auditory, etc.) –Use of mental imagery can improve various skills; many athletes use visualization Mental images: representations in the mind of an object or event (can take the form of any of the senses: visual, auditory, etc.) –Use of mental imagery can improve various skills; many athletes use visualization

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 19 Concepts: Categorizing the World Concepts: categorizations of objects, events, or people that share common properties; enable us to organize complex things into cognitive categories we can use –Prototypes: typical, highly representative examples of a concept Concepts: categorizations of objects, events, or people that share common properties; enable us to organize complex things into cognitive categories we can use –Prototypes: typical, highly representative examples of a concept

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 20 Reasoning: Making Up Your Mind Algorithm: cognitive shortcut in decision making; a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem Heuristic: cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution Algorithm: cognitive shortcut in decision making; a rule that, if applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to a problem Heuristic: cognitive shortcut that may lead to a solution

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 21 Problem Solving Step 1 – Preparation: understanding and diagnosing problems Step 2 – Production: generating solutions (may use heuristics for this) –Means-ends analysis: repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists Step 3 – Judgment: evaluating solutions Step 1 – Preparation: understanding and diagnosing problems Step 2 – Production: generating solutions (may use heuristics for this) –Means-ends analysis: repeated tests for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists Step 3 – Judgment: evaluating solutions

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 22 Impediments to Success Functional fixedness: the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use Mental set: the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist Functional fixedness: the tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use Mental set: the tendency for old patterns of problem solving to persist

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 23 LanguageLanguage Learning Outcomes –Explain how language develops –Describe how people use language Learning Outcomes –Explain how language develops –Describe how people use language

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 24 Language Development Babble: speech-like but meaningless sounds made by children from around 3 months to 1 year old – Critical period: time when a child is particularly sensitive to learning/acquisition of skills; critical period for language development early in life; difficult to acquire language skills if critical period is missed Babble: speech-like but meaningless sounds made by children from around 3 months to 1 year old – Critical period: time when a child is particularly sensitive to learning/acquisition of skills; critical period for language development early in life; difficult to acquire language skills if critical period is missed

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 25 Language Development Telegraphic speech: sentences in which words not critical to the message are left out; used by children beginning around age 2 ½ (ex.: “I show book” instead of “I showed you the book”) Overgeneralization: by about age 3, children employ language rules even when it results in an error (ex.: adding –ed to “run” to form the past tense) Telegraphic speech: sentences in which words not critical to the message are left out; used by children beginning around age 2 ½ (ex.: “I show book” instead of “I showed you the book”) Overgeneralization: by about age 3, children employ language rules even when it results in an error (ex.: adding –ed to “run” to form the past tense)

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 26 Language Development Learning theory approach: language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 27 Language Development Nativist approach: a genetically determined, innate mechanism drives language development (Noam Chomsky) –Universal grammar: common underlying structure shared by all the world’s languages –Language-acquisition device: a neural system of the brain that Chomsky thought permits understanding of language Nativist approach: a genetically determined, innate mechanism drives language development (Noam Chomsky) –Universal grammar: common underlying structure shared by all the world’s languages –Language-acquisition device: a neural system of the brain that Chomsky thought permits understanding of language

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 28 Language Development Interactionist approach to language development: combination of the learning theory and nativist approaches (brain’s language-acquisition device is the “hardware;” exposure to language in the environment allows us to develop the “software”)

© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 29 Influence of Language on Thinking Do Eskimos have more words for snow than Texans? Linguistic- relativity hypothesis: language shapes and may determine the way people in a specific culture perceive and understand the world (language produces thought) –However, most recent research suggests that thinking produces language, although language may influence how we think Do Eskimos have more words for snow than Texans? Linguistic- relativity hypothesis: language shapes and may determine the way people in a specific culture perceive and understand the world (language produces thought) –However, most recent research suggests that thinking produces language, although language may influence how we think