1 Memory Chapter 8

2 Memory Memory is the basis for knowing your friends, your neighbors, the English language, the national anthem, and yourself. If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger.

3 The Phenomenon of Memory Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time. It is our ability to store and retrieve information.

4 Studying Memory: Information Processing Models Keyboard (Encoding) Disk (Storage) Monitor (Retrieval) Sequential Process

Sensory Memory Short-term Memory Long- term Memory Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three- stage model of memory

6 Modifications to the Three-Stage Model 1.Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically. 2.Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.

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Sensory and working memory enable people to manage limited amounts of incoming information during initial processing long-term memory serves as a permanent repository for knowledge. SENSORY MEMORY Sensory memory processes incoming sensory information for ½ to 3 seconds

The main purpose of Sensory Memory is to screen incoming stimuli and process only those stimuli that are most relevant at the present time. Researchers agree that information processing in sensory memory usually occurs too quickly for people to consciously control what they attend to Information that is relevant to the task at hand, and that is familiar, are the most likely types of information to be processed in sensory memory and forwarded to the working memory

Two types of sensory memory: Iconic - Holds visual memory trace. Duration < 1 sec. Why not notice eye blinks Echoic - Holds auditory memory trace. Duration sec. Last few words echo briefly in head

11 Working Memory A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

WORKING MEMORY After stimuli enter sensory memory, they are either forwarded to working memory or deleted from the system. Working memory: a multi-component temporary memory system in which information is assigned meaning, linked to other information, and essential mental operations such as inferences are performed.

Effortful Processing Committing novel information to memory requires effort just like learning a concept from a textbook. Such processing leads to durable and acceptable memories. Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.

Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.

15 Encoding: Getting Information In How We Encode 1.Some information (route to your school) is automatically processed. 2.However, new or unusual information (friend’s new cell-phone number) requires attention and effort.

16 Automatic Processing We process an enormous amount of information effortlessly, such as the following: 1.Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page. 2.Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day. 3.Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you.

17 Memory Effects 1.Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time. 2.Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

18 What We Encode 1.Encoding by meaning 2.Encoding by images 3.Encoding by organization

19 Encoding Meaning Processing the meaning of verbal information by associating it with what we already know or imagine. Encoding meaning (semantic encoding) results in better recognition later than visual or acoustic encoding.

20 Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories. Organizing Information for Encoding 1.Chunking 2.Hierarchies

21 Sensory Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding RetrievalEncoding Events Retrieval

Sensory memory is the shortest-term element of memory It is the ability to retain impressions of sensory information after the original stimuli have ended It acts as a kind of buffer for stimuli received through the five senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch, which are retained accurately, but very briefly stimuli detected by our senses can be either deliberately ignored, in which case they disappear almost instantaneously, perceived, in which case they enter our sensory memory

The sensory memory for visual stimuli is sometimes known as the iconic memory the memory for auditory stimuli is known as the echoic memory that for touch as the hepatic memory

24 Sensory Memories Iconic 0.5 sec. long Echoic 3-4 sec. long Hepatic < 1 sec. long The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.

25 Whole Report The exposure time for the stimulus is so small that items cannot be rehearsed. R G T F M Q L Z S 50 ms (1/20 second) “Recall” R T M Z (44% recall) Sperling (1960)

26 Partial Report Low Tone Medium Tone High Tone “Recall” J R S (100% recall) Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity was larger than what was originally thought. 50 ms (1/20 second) S X T J R S P K Y

27 Working Memory Working memory, the new name for short-term memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short duration (20 seconds). Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.

28 Long-Term Memory Essentially unlimited capacity store. The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of buried pine seeds during winter and spring. R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers

29 Synaptic Changes In Aplysia, Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed that serotonin release from neurons increased after conditioning. Photo: Scientific American

30 Synaptic Changes Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) refers to synaptic enhancement after learning (Lynch, 2002). An increase in neurotransmitter release or receptors on the receiving neuron indicates strengthening of synapses. Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov Courtesy of Dominique Muller

31 Stress Hormones & Memory Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events Scott Barbour/ Getty Images

Implicit vs. Explicit Memory Certain forms of memory do not require conscious executive control These forms of memory—called implicit memory tasks requiring conscious control: explicit memory tasks.

33 Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows.

34 Hippocampus Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories. Weidenfield & Nicolson archives

35 Cerebellum Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories.

36 No New Memories Anterograde Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia (HM) Surgery After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the operation but cannot make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia. Memory Intact

37 Implicit Memory HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game. HM is unable to make new memories that are declarative (explicit), but he can form new memories that are procedural (implicit). C B A

Tasks requiring implicit memory Tasks requiring explicit memory mirror tracingrecalling last year reading reversed textpaired associate learning doing a word-completion task identifying the head of state singing part of a familiar song writing a term paper Items in the left column are all indirect forms of memory. They do not involve a conscious strategy for retrieving information. If you once learned to read text that is printed backwards, chances are you will be able to do it later

Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store. Recall --- retrieving information learned at an earlier time 3. Which is the correct sequence in the transmission of a neural impulse? A) axon  dendrite  cell body  synapse B) dendrite  axon  cell body  synapse C) synapse  axon  dendrite  cell body D) axon  synapse  cell body  dendrite E)dendrite  cell body  axon  synapse

40 Measures of Memory In recognition, the person must identify an item amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test requires recognition.) 1.Name the capital of France. a.Brussels b.Rome c.London d.Paris

Measures of Memory In recall, the person must retrieve information using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires recall.) 1.The capital of France is ______. Priming is the implicit memory effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences response to a later stimulus.

42 Measures of Memory In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time. List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 10 trials to learn this list List Jet Dagger Tree Kite … Silk Frog Ring It took 5 trials to learn the list 1 day later

43 Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. Fire Truck truck red fire heat smoke smell water hose

44 Déjà Vu Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. © The New Yorker Collection, Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved

Context Effects Context-dependent memory refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same. recallencoding Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land

Moods and Memories We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood (state-dependent memory). Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues. Our memories are mood-congruent.

47 Forgetting An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval. Absent-Mindedness Transience Blocking Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence

48 Encoding Failure We cannot remember what we do not encode.

49 Interference Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information.

Retroactive Interference occurs when previously learned information is lost because it is mixed up with new and somewhat similar information Proactive interference occurs when current information is lost because it is mixed up with previously learned, similar information Positive Transfer-- Works the opposite of interference. Old information facilitates new learning

Repression---Motivated Forgetting A basic defense mechanism, that banishes anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings and memories from consciousness Sigmund Freud

52 Memory Construction While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent. Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

53 Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event. Misinformation and Imagination Effects Depiction of the actual accident.

54 Misinformation Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

55 Memory Construction A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

56 Source Amnesia Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined (misattribution). Constructed Memories research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) their memories.

57 Improving Memory 1.Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall. 2.Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material. 3.Make material personally meaningful. 4.Use mnemonic devices:  associate with peg words — something already stored  make up a story  chunk — acronyms