NOTES TO ANDERSON, CHAPTERS 6 & 7 PROFESSIONAL WRITING

CONDUCTING RESEARCH What is reader-centered research? Complete —Readers will want all the information needed to understand an issue and make a good decision Unbiased —Readers will want you to be objective about the information and will want the sources of your information to be unbiased (or will want you to recognize and adjust for the bias) Credible —Readers will want your information to be from credible sources Divisible —Readers will want the information not simply summarized but broken into its constituent pieces so that they can evaluate it as well

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Define your research objectives Identify the full range of sources that might have helpful information Gather information that can be analyzed in subgroups Create an efficient and productive research plan Carefully evaluate what you find Take careful notes Observe intellectual property law and document your sources

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Define your research objectives Main research objective—to learn as much as possible (or as much as necessary) to respond effectively to the following questions: What questions might readers ask about the topic or issue? What kinds of answers might readers want you to provide? How much detail will be necessary? What kinds of arguments and information might be persuasive to my readers? What counterarguments can I identify and what information is available to respond to them?

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Identify the full range of sources that might have helpful information Some common sources of perspectives about an issue: Persons affected Persons involved Other organizations or groups involved in similar efforts Professional publications Academic publications Research widely enough to learn about disagreements and controversies or to satisfy yourself that none exist

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Gather information that can be analyzed in subgroups When gathering information try to break it down into subgroups What different groups can you identify? Are different groups subject to different influences, rules, experiences? Are different groups affected differently? Do different groups respond differently? While you will ask these kinds of questions later, thinking about the existence of different groups will help your research

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Create an efficient and productive research plan Consult general sources first—encyclopedias, review articles, articles in popular magazines and newspapers Focus on sources that will be most persuasive to your readers—peer-reviewed journals for academics, reputable sources of data (i.e. government, think-tanks, etc.) Conduct preliminary research when appropriate Make a schedule—establish deadlines for research Study the research methods you are going to use—if you plan to use new research methods (interviews, surveys, etc.) build in time to learn about these methods

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Carefully evaluate what you find—is the source of your information credible, trustworthy, unbiased? Questions to ask: Is it relevant to my readers’ needs? Will it be credible in my readers’ eyes? Is it accurate ? Is it complete ? Is it current and up to date? Is it unbiased ? Evaluating accuracy, completeness, currency, bias Compare sources Analyze the conclusions drawn by others Identify possible benefits (and therefore possible bias)

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Take careful notes Accuracy and reliability important Acknowledging sources (citation) What to record about sources: Books Author’s or editor’s full name Exact title City of publication Year of publication Edition Page numbers Articles Author’s or editor’s full name Exact title Journal title Volume (and issue unless pages are numbered consecutively throughout the volume) Year of publication Page numbers

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Observe intellectual property law and document your sources Do I need permission to use this material? Do I need to document this source in my communication? Generally you need permission unless You created the materials yourself Someone else at your employer’s created it Copyright or other protection has expired (i.e. the material has entered the “public domain” and is no longer protected by copyright) The material is specifically identified by its creator(s) as “open source” and therefore not subject to copyright Your use of the material is consistent with “fair use”

THE RESEARCH PROCESS “Fair use” Purpose of use: educational use is considered fair use; commercial uses are not Proportion of the work used: a quotation of a few hundred words from a long book is consistent with fair use; the same length quotation from a short pamphlet is not Publication status: published works are subject to “fair use”; unpublished works are not Economic impact: if your use of the material will decrease the creator’s profits, such use is not fair use Graphics Are not subject to fair use; always seek permission unless you or your company created or the image is in the public domain or is part of a school project that will not be published Websites Treat the same as graphics

THE RESEARCH PROCESS Do I need to document my sources? Yes If you obtained permission from the copyright owner If the information was derived from the source and is not common knowledge If the information effectively duplicates information from the source (specific data, actual words, etc.)

ANALYZING YOUR RESEARCH Review your research objectives Arrange your information in an analyzable form Look for meaningful relationships in the information Interpret each relationship for your readers Explain why each relationship is important to your readers Recommend actions based on your analysis Think critically throughout your analysis

ANALYZING YOUR RESEARCH The number one rule—Think Critically Here’s how Robert Ennis defines a critical thinker 1.Is open-minded and mindful of alternatives 2.Tries to be well-informed 3.Judges well the credibility of sources 4.Identifies conclusions, reasons, and assumptions 5.Judges well the quality of an argument, including the acceptability of its reasons, assumptions, and evidence 6.Can well develop and defend a reasonable position 7.Asks appropriate clarifying questions 8.Formulates plausible hypotheses; plans experiments well 9.Defines terms in a way appropriate for the context 10.Draws conclusions when warranted, but with caution 11.Integrates all items in this list when deciding what to believe or do

ANALYZING YOUR RESEARCH Review your research objectives Remember why you are conducting research—to help readers understand something and make decisions Stay focused on how your research can help readers Avoid irrelevant discussions of side issues

ANALYZING YOUR RESEARCH Arrange your information in an analyzable form Put your information in other forms to help you “see” relationships Tables—can show relationships between categories Line charts—can show relationships over time Bar charts—can show proportional relationships Flow charts—can show relationships between groups or steps in a process Hierarchical outlines—can show relationships of subordination or coordination In short, make a picture of your information—try different a variety of representation; remember you don’t know what the relationship is yet

ANALYZING YOUR RESEARCH Look for meaningful relationships in the information Some strategies for looking: Compare related outcomes Compare different steps in a process Compare the same topic from different sources Consider possible cause-and-effect relationships Consider possible correlations Consider looking for relationships between subgroups Do different subgroups respond differently? Are different subgroups treated differently? Do different subgroups have different levels of success?

ANALYZING YOUR RESEARCH Interpret each relationship for your readers Consider all of the possible explanations Narrow down the set of all possible explanations to those that are most likely If is impossible to settle on a “most likely” explanation, acknowledge the uncertainty and if possible devise research that will help you lessen the uncertainty While some uncertainty will always exist, try to avoid hiding behind the uncertainty—in virtually all writing that requires research you will be expected to draw conclusions (if only provisional ones) from what you find

ANALYZING YOUR RESEARCH Explain why each relationship is important to your readers Don’t assume that your readers will see how your explanations fit the data—be explicit about what that relationship is and how it was derived from the data Don’t assume that your readers will see how your explanations lead to your recommendations—again be explicit

ANALYZING YOUR RESEARCH Recommend actions based on your analysis In virtually all writing that requires research you will be expected to draw conclusions (if only provisional ones) from what you find Don’t assume your recommendations are obvious Be explicit about how the recommendations follow from the evidence Be explicit about how the recommendations will address concerns raised by the evidence

ANALYZING YOUR RESEARCH Think critically throughout your analysis—to reiterate, a critical thinker 1.Is open-minded and mindful of alternatives 2.Tries to be well-informed 3.Judges well the credibility of sources 4.Identifies conclusions, reasons, and assumptions 5.Judges well the quality of an argument, including the acceptability of its reasons, assumptions, and evidence 6.Can well develop and defend a reasonable position 7.Asks appropriate clarifying questions 8.Formulates plausible hypotheses; plans experiments well 9.Defines terms in a way appropriate for the context 10.Draws conclusions when warranted, but with caution 11.Integrates all items in this list when deciding what to believe or do