Chapter 26 Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire, the Islamic Heartland, and Qing China

I. From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey Ottoman decline By early 1700s Power struggles Rivalry with the West for trade Succession of weak rulers Results Austrian Habsburgs benefit Ottomans driven from Hungary, northern Balkans Russians expand into Caucasus, Crimea Christian Balkans challenge Ottomans Greeks, independent, 1830 Serbia, 1867 By 1870, most of the Balkans Capital threatened

Ottoman Empire from Late 18th Century to World War I

I. From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey A. Reform and Survival Ottomans manage to somehow survive into the 20th century… Division of Euro powers Europeans fear Ottoman breakup British support Ottomans v. Russia Don’t want Russian to have control of Mediterranean, so they “prop” them up Survival depends on internal reforms… Selim III (1789-1807) Reforms anger Janissaries Selim wanted new navy/army; seen as direct threat to Janissaries 1807, deposed, assassinated Mahmud II Professional army (secretly built) Replaces Janissaries, 1826 Incites mutiny, then kills them Reforms: Tanzimat Universities on Western models Railways 1876, European-style constitution Went against advisors that argued for a return to Islamic past

I. From Empire to Nation: Ottoman Retreat and the Birth of Turkey B. Repression and Revolt Sultanate, ulama (religious experts) seen as barriers to reform Sultan Abdul Hamid (1878-1908) turns to despotic absolutism Nullifies constitution, restricts civil liberties Deprive Westernize elite groups of power of they had gained in forming imperial policies continues work on infrastructure Even Hamid, though, continues to push for Western ideas of military; railways Young Turks Exiled Turkish intellectuals and political agitators Wanted to restore 1876 constitution remove Abdul Hamid Arabs push for independence

II. Western Intrusions and the Crisis in the Arab Islamic Heartlands A. Muhammad Ali and the Failure of Westernization in Egypt Napoleon Defeats Ottoman Mamluk vassals in Egypt Viewed this as a means to an end, that end being destroying British power in India Egypt underestimates Napoleon Mamluks view them as inferior Battle reveals just how susceptible the Muslims are to the Europeans Muhammad Ali (1801) Emerges after French withdraw Albanian Ottoman Reforms Military: army, navy westernized Agricultural modernization Reforms fall short Khedives follow Ali in power, until 1952

II. Western Intrusions and the Crisis in the Arab Islamic Heartlands B. Bankruptcy, European Intervention, and Strategies of Resistance Muhammad Ali's successors Drop reform Ayans profit from peasantry Cotton Crucial export crop Production increases, but peasants suffer Makes Egypt dependent on one crop…. Indebtedness to foreign creditors Khedives in debt to Europeans Europeans have ulterior motives: Suez Canal, open, 1869 Makes Egypt most strategic place on Earth University of al-Azhar Center of Muslim thinkers who want to ward off Europeans al-Afghani, Muhammad Abduh Push for Westernization Underline traditional Muslim rationalism Ahmad Orabai Revolt against khedive, 1882 British intervene Period of puppet khedives under British Direct European control over the Islamic heartlands had begun…..

II. Western Intrusions and the Crisis in the Arab Islamic Heartlands C. Jihad: The Mahdist Revolt in the Sudan As Egypt falls under British control, they are drawn into Sudanic conflict By 1870s, Egyptian oppression and British intervention arouses deep resentment in South, but they need a leader Sudan challenges British Can't control camel herding nomads Muhammad Achmad, the Mahdi Proclaims jihad against Egyptians, British Controls Sudan Succeeded by Khalifa Abdallahi General Kitchener (British) Sent in fall of 1896 to put an end to one of the most serious threats to European domination in Africa Battle of Omdurman, 1896 Mahdists crushed

Ottoman Empire from Late 18th Century to World War I

III. The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China Nurhaci (1559-1626) Manchu leader Drives Chinese south of Great Wall Signification of Manchuria Weakness of Ming regime gave Manchus opportunity to seize control in China 1644, take Beijing Almost by luck…… Allowed Manchu past Great Wall to help, then they took over Found Qing dynasty Qing Retain Ming rule Keep people from Ming in certain posts, pardon many

Qing Empire from Opium War of 1839-1841 to World War I

III. The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China Qing Empire from Opium War of 1839-1841 to World War I A. Economy and Society in the Early Centuries of Qing Rule Qing social system maintained Old over young Male over female Scholar over commoner Manchu Rural reforms Infrastructure maintained Burdens lessened Taxes lessened Population continues to grow Silver influx to 1800 State and mercantile classes benefited from this Compradors (wealthy new group of merchants) Merchants along south coast Tie China to outside Major links b/t China and outside

III. The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China B. Rot from Within: Bureaucratic Breakdown and Social Disintegration Qing decline Exam system corrupt; cheating Yellow River dikes not maintained Flooding Farms wiped out Unrest: migration, outlaws Food shortages prompt mass migrations Banditry increases Seen as sign of decline C. Barbarians at the Southern Gates: The Opium War and After “Barbarians” Out of ignorance… Treat Europeans like nomads…BUT… These “nomads” had guns, and superior technology British China didn’t want British goods, so British had to trade silver bullion Britain turns to opium from India Import Indian opium to China Chinese react Lin Zexu Blockades European trade British invade, 1839 Opium Wars - 1839 Chinese defeated Hong Kong to British Ports forced to reopen

III. The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall of the Qing Empire in China D. A Civilization at Risk: Rebellion and Failed Reforms Hong Xiuquan (mentally unstable) Taiping rebellion Calls for social, land reforms Criticize Qing, Manchus Crushed by Empress Cixi, 1898 Boxer Rebellion Anti-foreign conflict Crushed by Western powers E. The Fall of the Qing: The End of a Civilization? Resistance goes underground Plots to push Westernization Sun Yat-sen 1905, civil service exams ended End of scholar-gentry 1911, rebellions 1912, last Qing emperor removed