Aspects of Evolutionary Psychology History of Systems Psychology PSY401 Tiffany Jubb, Joe Milillo, Jen Mislinski, and Cesar Monzon

Evolutionary Psychology Evolutionary Psychology (EP) is a psychology based upon evolutionary biology. It studies behavior as a product of psychological mechanisms (information-processing mechanisms), also called psychological adaptations (Confer, et al., 2010). A mechanism, and the corresponding neural substrate, are selected by a species because it produces behavior that solves an adaptive problem; each psychological mechanism is specific to a particular adaptive problem, that is it is domain-specific rather than domain- general (Krill, Platek, Goetz, & Shackelford, 2007). This means that mechanisms are problem specific and no one can be generally applied to all problems confronted in life. Based upon evolutionary biology, EP is seen by its advocates a meta- theory to psychology, building bridges between subdiciplines through conceptual integration (Ploger, 2010). Joe Milillo

Evolutionary Psychology: Contributions Empirical studies have come to show that psychological traits are shaped by evolutionary forces just as physical traits have been (Krill, Platek, Goetz, & Shackelford, 2007). Just as physiological adaptations solved problems related to reproduction and survival, psychological adaptations do the same (Confer, et al., 2010). Applying evolution theories and understanding to psychology has broadened our understanding of psychology. It allows for multiple analysis of difficult problems using the psychology of nature/nurture and biology. It aids in developing theories about behavior and social and cognitive functioning (Geary, 2006). EP has helped advance some treatments of mental disorders, such as depression (Illardi et al., 2007). It also increases understanding of factors in sexual harassment and assault, and guides legal initiatives to preventing them (Confer, et al., 2010). Slowly, EP is beginning to be incorporated in many sub-fields of psychology (Fitzgerald & Whitaker, 2010). Joe Milillo

Evolutionary Psychology: Limitations Even with its promising insights, evolutionary psychology does have its limitations. Limitations are both empirical phenomena that cannot yet be explained using EP, as well as current conceptual constraints. Examples of unexplained phenomena are homosexual orientation and suicide, both of which do not fit the reproduction and survival paradigm (Confer et al., 2010). Conceptual constraints are a lack of detailed knowledge of natural selection pressures and an insufficiency in explaining cultural and individual differences. (Confer et. al, 2010). These differences leave ample scope for further research to advance the field. Joe Milillo

Evolutionary Psychology and Cognitive Neuroscience An integration of biological approaches and cognitive neuroscience with evolutionary psychology has brought about a new field of inquiry called evolutionary cognitive neuroscience (ECN) (Fitzgerald and Whitaker, 2010). Evolutionary psychology is able to describe mental functions, while cognitive neuroscience provides the knowledge of the structures involved (Krill, Platek, Goetz, & Shackelford, 2007). ECN attempts to identify the neural mechanisms that have been formed due to selection pressures and allows for a model to guide empirical research on brain-behavior relationships. For example, studies have found links between facial attractions and the reward center in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), as well as other areas like the anterior cingulate cortex and amygdala (Krill, Platek, Goetz, & Shackelford, 2007). Joe Milillo

Evolutionary Psychology: Altruism and Empathy While most studies focus on aggression and mate-selection, other aspects of evolutionary psychology and neuroscience that garners some attention is altruism and empathy. In evolutionary theory, natural selection processes have developed these emotions to foster both social and individual survival and well- being (Decety & Batson, 2009). Many psychopathologies are characterized by a lack of empathy. Various treatments, in one way or another, try to foster its development (Decety & Batson, 2009). There is increasing evidence that the brain is wired for social connections. It is found that emotional connections are brought about by empathy which motivates people to make altruistic decisions, those that may create difficulty for an individual making the decision, but alleviates it for others (De Waal, 2008). Joe Milillo

His Brain/Her Brain: Gender Differences Evolutionary Psychology and Evolutionary Cognitive Neuroscience are deepening the understanding of gender differences which allows for a better understanding of mental and brain disorders (Cahill, 2009). Neuroscience studies have found that there is no significant difference in emotional reactivity between men and women, but that men are better able at reappraisal of negative emotions, whereas women use more positive emotion to down-regulate negative emotions (McRae, Ochsner, Mauss, Gabrielle, & Gross, 2008). Evolutionary Psychology research confirms that differences in attitudes toward sex and mate-choosing exist. A meta-analysis on gender differences studies between 1993 and 2007 found that most of these were small with the exceptions being pornography use and causal sex. Nations and ethnic groups that had great gender equality had smaller gender differences. Also, as could be expected, any differences in sexual behavior and attitudes decreased with age (Peterson & Hyde, 2010). Joe Milillo

References Cahill, L. (2009). His brain, her brain. Special Editions, 20(3), Confer, J. C., Easton, J. A., Fleischman, D. S., Goetz, C. D., Lewis, D. M. G., Perilloux, C., & Buss, D. M. (2010). Evolutionary psychology: Controversies, questions, prospects, and limitations. American Psychologist, 65(2), 110. De Waal, F. B. M. (2008). Putting the altruism back into altruism: The evolution of empathy. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 59, Decety, J., & Batson, C. D. (2009). Empathy and morality: Integrating social and neuroscience approaches. The Moral Brain, Fitzgerald, C. J., & Whitaker, M. B. (2010). Examining the acceptance of and resistance to evolutionary psychology. Evolutionary Psychology. Geary, D. C. (2006). Evolutionary developmental psychology: Current status and future directions. Developmental Review, 26(2), Ilardi, S., Jacobson, J., Lehman, K., Stites, B., Karwoski, L., Stroupe, N., & Young, C. (2007). Therapeutic lifestyle change for depression: Results from a randomized controlled trial. Krill, A. L., Platek, S. M., Goetz, A. T., & Shackelford, T. K. (2007). Where evolutionary psychology meets cognitive neuroscience: A precís to evolutionary cognitive neuroscience. Evolutionary Psychology. McRae, K., Ochsner, K. N., Mauss, I. B., Gabrieli, J. J. D., & Gross, J. J. (2008). Gender differences in emotion regulation: An fMRI study of cognitive reappraisal. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 11(2), 143. Petersen, J. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2010). A meta-analytic review of research on gender differences in sexuality, 1993–2007. Psychological bulletin, 136(1), 21. Ploeger, A. (2010). Evolutionary psychology as a metatheory for the social sciences. Integral Review. Joe Milillo