Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved This multimedia product and its content are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law: Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network. Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images. Any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

 Theories of Development  Prenatal Development and Infancy  Early and Middle Childhood  Adolescence  Early and Middle Adulthood  Later Adulthood Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Developmental Psychology the study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the life span covers physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains Development is seen as continuous or as taking place in stages. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 The essence of cognitive development is the refinement of schemes.  Schemes plans of action to be used in similar circumstances  Assimilation process for incorporating new objects, events, experiences, and information into existing schemes  Accommodation modifying existing schemes and creating new ones to incorporate new experiences and information Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Sensorimotor Stage birth to 2 years Infants gain understanding of the world through senses and motor activities. Infants act on objects and events that are directly perceived. development of object permanence  the realization that objects continue to exist when they can no longer be perceived Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Preoperational Stage ages 2–7 Children acquire symbolic function.  understanding that one thing can stand for another Children exhibit egocentrism.  belief that everyone sees what they see and thinks what they think Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Concrete Operational Stage 7–11/12 years Children acquire the concept of conservation.  quantity of matter stays the same despite rearrangement or change in appearance begin to understand reversibility  any change in shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentally Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Formal Operational Stage 11/12 years and beyond Children acquire the capacity for hypothetico- deductive thinking.  ability to apply logical thought to abstract and hypothetical situations Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 These theorists believe that age-related differences in performance are a function of changes in the use of working memory. Younger children process information more slowly.  information less likely to make it to long-term storage  cannot compare original and transformation Older children are better able to integrate all relevant information in working memory. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Felt Piaget’s theory placed too much emphasis on forces within the child  Key Concepts private speech  talking to oneself  key component in cognitive development scaffolding / zone of proximal development  instruction where an adult adjusts the amount of guidance to match a child’s present level of ability Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral development.  Presented moral dilemmas to participants analyzed the moral reasoning in their choices  Classified moral reasoning three levels, two stages at each level progress through the levels and stages in a fixed order Each level has a prerequisite stage of cognitive development. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Kolhberg’s Theory  Evidence suggests that the stages occur in all cultures.  Stage 5 is present in all middle-class cultures studied, but absent in tribal cultures.  Carol Gilligan feels that the theory is sex-biased. No women were used in Kohlberg’s studies. content of women’s morality different Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Psychosocial Stages encompass the entire life span Each stage is defined by a conflict that must be resolved for healthy personality development to occur.  Most research has focused on trust in infants, identity formation in adolescents, and generativity in middle-aged adults.  Predictions received mixed support in research. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Teratogens harmful agents in the prenatal environment negative impact on prenatal development can cause birth defects  Critical Period prenatal period when certain body structures develop  Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Mother drinks during pregnancy. Baby is born with mental retardation, small head, facial, organ, and behavioral abnormalities. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Labor: 3-Stage Process Stage 1: Uterus contracts; cervix flattens and increases in diameter to 10 centimeters. Stage 2: Fetus makes its way through the vagina and into the world. Stage 3: Uterus expels the placenta.  Neonate Newborn infant up to 1 month old Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Robert Fantz (1961) Infants prefer to fixate on some objects over others. Newborn infants can discriminate between objects. prefer faces to black and white abstract patterns Newborn visual acuity is about 20/600.  Vision improves rapidly.

 Temperament behavioral style; characteristic way of responding to the environment influenced by heredity; somewhat predictive of personality later in life  Types of Temperament easy  pleasant mood, adaptable, approach new situations positively difficult  intense emotional reactions, react negatively to new situations slow to warm up  tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, somewhat negative in mood Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Attachment strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver  Harry Harlow Contact comfort rather than nourishment forms the basis of attachment in rhesus monkeys.  At 6–8 months of age, human infants exhibit: Separation anxiety  fear and distress shown when parent leaves Stranger anxiety  fear of strangers Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Secure Attachment about 65 percent of infants use mother as a secure base for exploring distressed by separation from caregivers, greet caregivers when they return display better social skills as preschool children  Avoidant Attachment about 20 percent of infants not responsive to mother or troubled when she leaves may actively avoid contact with mother after separation Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Resistant Attachment 10–15 percent of infants seek close contact with mother tend not to branch out and explore after separation, may display anger toward mother; not easily comforted  Disorganized/disoriented Attachment 5–10 percent of infants protest separation exhibit contradictory and disoriented behavior when reunited Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Children must acquire language in the first two years of life; otherwise, their ability to learn it is impaired.  Phases of Language Development cooing  repeatedly uttering vowel sounds babbling  vocalization of basic speech sounds (phonemes)  between 4 and 6 months of age Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 One-Word Stage age 1 year Words represent objects that move or that infants can act on. overextension and underextension  Telegraphic Speech Ages 2–3 short sentences containing only essential content words reflects understanding of syntax overregularization  misapplying a grammatical rule Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Learning Theories Language is acquired through imitation and reinforcement.  Nativist Position Language ability is largely innate. language acquisition device  enables children to acquire language and rules of grammar easily and naturally Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Interactionist Approach acknowledges the role of infants’ inborn capacity for acquiring language recognizes environmental influences  Literacy phonological awareness  sensitivity to sound patterns in language and how they are represented as letters  Children learn skills through word play. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Authoritarian Parents arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning obedience value obedience to authority  Authoritative Parents set high but realistic standards, enforce limits encourage open communication and independence  Permissive Parents few rules or demands Children make their own decisions and control their own behavior. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Authoritative Parents Children tend to be happier and have higher self- esteem. more self-reliant, socially competent, responsible  Authoritarian Parents Children tend to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy.  Permissive Parents Children are immature, impulsive, and dependent. least self-reliant and self-controlled of three subtypes Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Biological Theory Prenatal and sex hormones influence development.  Social Learning Theory Environment is more important than biological forces. modeling and reinforcement for gender behavior  Cognitive Developmental Theory development in stages  gender identity, gender stability, and gender constancy  Gender-Schema Theory desire to maintain self-esteem directs child toward culturally defined gender roles Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Puberty period of rapid physical growth and change culminates in sexual maturity  Early maturation in boys advantages in sports more success academically greater aggression and hostility  Early maturation in girls more self-conscious over developing body earlier sexual experiences, more unwanted pregnancies earlier exposure to alcohol and drug use Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Sexual activity increases dramatically through the teen years.  Factors associated with later onset of sexual activity:  Living with both biological parents  Higher academic achievement  Involvement in sports  Frequent attendance of religious services

 Most adolescents have good relationships with their parents.  A good relationships with parents is important for psychological development.  Parenting style affects adolescent behavior. authoritative most effective; permissive least effective  Peer groups provide adolescents with: Assistance in identity formation Standards of comparison Vehicle for developing social skills Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Period from Late Teens to Early 20s explore options prior to committing to adult roles develop new skills in work  Neuroimaging Studies The parts of the brain involved in decision making and self- control continue to mature through the early 20s.  Must address developmental tasks in 5 domains academic, friendship, conduct, work, romantic Emerging adults struggle more with work and romantic tasks. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 After age 30, slight decline in physical capabilities  Presbyopia lens of the eye no longer accommodates adequately for near vision  Menopause cessation of menstruation signifies end of reproductive capacity in women usually occurs between 45 and 55  Gradual decline in testosterone in men beginning at age 20, continuing until about 60 Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Tasks Performance Differences  Young Adult tasks requiring speed or rote memory  Older Adult general information, vocabulary, reasoning ability, and social judgment  Two Types of Intelligence crystallized intelligence  verbal ability and accumulated knowledge  increases over life span fluid intelligence  abstract reasoning and mental flexibility  peaks in the early 20s and declines slowly as people age Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Living Arrangements One half of all US households are headed by a married couple; the other half have different arrangements.  Marriage and Divorce Eighty percent of Americans will marry at least once. Marriage is associated with many physical and psychological benefits.  Careers Job satisfaction predicts satisfaction with romantic relationships. importance of career shared by both men and women Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 General Slowing reductions in the speed of neural transmission leads to slowing of physical and mental functions  Farsightedness, impaired night vision, hearing loss in higher frequencies  Eighty percent of Americans older than age sixty-five have one or more chronic conditions. hypertension, arthritis  Good Cognitive Functioning Predictors education level, complex work environment, a long marriage to intelligent spouse, higher income Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Sixty percent of sixty-five- to sixty-nine-year-olds and eighty percent of those over seventy have retired from paid employment (Fifars, 2008). Most do not experience stress adjusting to retirement.  Loss of Spouse most stressful event of lifetime suppressed immune functioning in grieving spouse  Living Arrangements The US places high value on independence.  Five percent of elderly women and nine percent of older men live with relatives. Latin-American and Asian cultures  The elderly live with relatives. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Three Components  Good physical health  Retention of cognitive abilities  Engagement in social and productive activities  Engage in activities to ward off decline.  overall satisfaction with life Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved

 Identified 5 stages in coming to terms with death Denial Anger Bargaining Depression Acceptance  Critics doubt the universality of stages.  Reactions to impending death vary widely between individuals and across cultures. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved