Developmental Psychology: Children and Adolescents FEM 3101 (SEMESTER 1 - 2012-2013) Developmental Psychology: Children and Adolescents

DEPT. OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT & FAMILY STUDIES FACULTY OF HUMAN ECOLOGY INSTRUCTOR: DR. SITI NOR YAACOB DEPT. OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT & FAMILY STUDIES FACULTY OF HUMAN ECOLOGY TEL: 603-89467088/03-89467093/012-2841844 E-MAIL: sitinor@putra.upm.edu.my

COURSE SYNOPSIS Processes of physical, cognitive, social and emotional growth and development from conception through adolescence. Emphasis on the major aspects at each stage of development. Processes and outcomes of interaction between the child-adolescent and the environment.

COURSE OBJECTIVES By the end of the course students will be able to: Identify ecological processes of physical, socio-emotional and cognitive development of children and adolescents.(C2) Explain the effects of genetic, environment, and genetic-environment interactions influences on children-adolescent development. (C4, A3, CS) Explain the effects of children-adolescent interactions with the environment on children-adolescent growth and development. (P3, CTPS, TS)

TOPICS Introduction Prenatal development Postnatal development Physical development in children Cognitive development in children Language development in children Socio-emotion and values development in children

TOPICS (cont) 8. Adolescents’ physical development 9. Adolescents’ cognitive development 10. Adolescents’ socio-emotional development 11. Adolescents’ vocational and career

Assessments Assessment % Quiz 10 Test 1 20 Assignments 1. Prenatal 5 2. Lab project for children 3. Lab project for adolescent 15 Final exam 30

About the course Introduction: Concepts, Theories & Research Part One: Child Psychology Part Two: Adolescent psychology

DEFINITION OF CONCEPT What is Growth (Pertumbuhan)? What is Development (Perkembangan)?

Growth is a quantitative process of change ex. change in weight/height – i.e. changes in saiz and structure, physical and mental aspects. Changes can be measured & assess - from one stage to the other. Growth will reach its peak once a person mature.

DEFINITION “Growth is an individual development in body size, for ex. changes in muscles, bones, hair, skin & glands. [Karl E. Garrison] “Growth is a change that can be measured from one stage to the other, and from time to time” [Atan Long] “Growth as an increment in a person external attributes. For examples in terms of size, height and body weight” [D.S Wright & Ann Taylor]

DEVELOPMENT Developmental is defined as change. Human development refers to a particular type of change or the pattern of change that begins at conception and continue through the life span. Development occurs in the context of the significant social environment of life process (family, school, peer group, community).

Thus….Child Development is…. A scientific study of understanding all aspects of human constancy and change from conception through adolescence A part of a larger discipline known as developmental psychology or human development, which includes all changes experienced throughout the lifespan

Behavioral change as a developmental change Three general condition/criteria The change is orderly or sequential. The change results in a permanent alteration of behavior. The change results in a new behavior or mode of functioning that is more advanced, adaptive or useful than prior behaviors.

The study of childhood: Basic Concepts Developmental Processes: Changes and Stability Quantitative change (growth) refers to the easily measurable and sometimes obvious aspects of development. e.g: Involve changes in size or amount, such as height, weight.

Developmental Processes: Changes and Stability Qualitative change refers to variations and modifications in functioning. E.g ability of a newborn & 5 months old baby Stability – constancy or enduring characteristics Changes in development is continues  from one stage to the other  but maintaining a pattern Specific characteristics  Cephalacaudal, proximodistal, mass to specific

Developmental stages Prenatal Infancy (0-2 years) & Toddlerhood (2-3 years) Early childhood(3-6 years) Middle childhood (6-10 years) Adolescence (11-19 years) Early (11-14 years) Middle (15-17 years) Late (18-19 years) Adulthood(≥ 20 years) Early (20-30 years) Middle (40-50 years) Late (60 years and above)

Domains of development Physical development Body, brain, senses, motor skills Cognitive development Learning, memory, language, thinking, moral reasoning Psychosocial development Personality, emotions, social relationships Interrelated throughout development

Domains of Development (con’t) Changes in Physical Body size & proportions, appearance Function of body systems, health Perceptual & motor capacities Cognitive Intellectual abilities Social Emotional communication Self-understanding, knowledge about others Interpersonal skills & relationships Moral reasoning & behavior

Influences on Development: Factors that can influence development are:- Nature (sejadi) Genetic (Warisan/baka/genetik) Nurture (Asuhan) Environment (Persekitaran) Food intake (Pemakanan) Health (Kesihatan)

Major Contextual Influences Normative Influences Normative age-graded influences/event, i..e. biological or social Example = puberty or entry into formal schooling Normative history-graded event, i.e. cohort (a group of people who share a similar experience) Example = living during the Great Depression/Tsunami i.e. Atypical events, e.g. having a birth defect Non-normative Influences Individual events that impact the person Events can be traumatic or happy

Historical foundation: How the study of childhood has evolved? Early Approaches Medieval times The Reformation The Enlightenment John Locke John Jacques Rousseau Darwin

Scientific Beginnings Baby biographies Charles Darwin G. Stanley Hall Normative Period of Child Study Mental Testing Movement

An emerging consensus All domains are interrelated. Normal development includes a wide range of individual differences. Children help to shape their own development and influence others’ responses to them. Historical and cultural contexts strongly influence development. Early experience is important, but children can be remarkably resilient. Development in childhood is connected to development throughout the rest of the lifespan.

Theories in Developmental Psychology

What is a theory? A theory is a set of logically related concepts or statements, which seeks to describe and explain development and predict what kinds of behavior may occur under certain conditions. Hypotheses are tentative explanations or predictions that can be tested by research.

Theory Describes Explains behavior Predicts An orderly, integrated set of statements that Describes Explains behavior Predicts

Benefits of theories in Developmental Psychology Explain the meaning of an event/facts Able to relate these facts

Theories Psychoanalytic Learning Cognitive Psychosexual (S. Freud) Psychosocial (E. Erickson) Learning Behavioral Learning Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Social Learning (A. Bandura) Cognitive Cognitive Developmental Theory (J. Piaget) Socio-cultural (L. Vygotsky) Moral Development (Reasoning) (Kohlberg) Human Ecology System (U. Bronfenbrenner)

Freud’s Three Parts of the Personality Id Largest portion of the mind Unconscious, present at birth Source of biological needs & desires Ego Conscious, rational part of mind Emerges in early infancy Redirects id impulses acceptably Superego The conscience Develops from ages 3 to 6, from interactions with caregivers

Psychoanalytic Psychosocial (E. Erickson) * 8 stages of dev. Psychosexual (S. Freud) *Psychosexual stages Trust versus mistrust Autonomy vs shame Initiative vs guilt Industry vs Inferiority Identity vs Identity Confusion Intimacy versus isolation Generativity vs stagnation Integrity vs despair Oral stage Anal stage Phallic Latency Genital

Psychoanalytic Psychoanalytic theory proposes that morality develops through humans' conflict between their instinctual drives and the demands of society. Freud identified three parts of the personality that become integrated during five stages of development Id Ego Superego DR. MM/FEM/UPM 33

Personality Structure superego ego ID DR. MM/FEM/UPM 34

Personality Structures ID (unconscious element) the largest portion  is the source of basic biological needs and desires. EGO (semi-conscious element) the conscious  rational part of the personality, emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways SUPEREGO (The conscious element that function on the basis of morality). the conscience that develops between ages 3 and 6 through interactions with parents, who insist that the child conform to the values of society. DR. MM/FEM/UPM 35

Freud Psychosexual stages: Oral stage [0- 1 year] – Mouth is the focus of stimulation & interaction. Feeding & weaning are central Anal stage [1-3 year] – Anus as the focus of stimulation & interaction. Elimination & toilet training is central DR. MM/FEM/UPM 36

Freud Psychosexual stages: Phallic [3-6year] The genital is the focus of stimulation. Gender role & moral development are central. Conflict between id & superego Children interested to know more different sexes, babies etc. 2 main conflict: Oedipus Conflict  son attracted to mother Electra Conflict  daughter attracted to father Penis envy DR. MM/FEM/UPM 37

Freud Psychosexual stages: Latency [6-12 year] A period of suspended sexual activities; Energy shift to physical and intellectual activities. Focus on achievement Genital [Adolescent – adulthood (12 & above)] Genital are the focus of stimulation with the onset of puberty Mature sexual relationship develop DR. MM/FEM/UPM 38

Erikson’s Psychosocial stages Late Adulthood (60 above) Integrity vs Despair Middle Adulthood (40’s-50’s) Generativity vs Stagnation Young Adulthood (20 -30’s) Intimacy vs Isolation Adolescent (12-19) Identity vs Role Confusion Middle childhood (6-11) Industry vs Inferiority Early Childhood (3-5) Initiative vs Guilt Toddler (1-2) Autonomy vs Shame/doubt Infancy (0-1) Trust vs Distrust

Behaviorism & Social Learning Classical Conditioning (Pavlov) Stimulus – Response Operant Conditioning (Skinner) Reinforcers (Reward) and Punishments Social Learning (Bandura) Modeling

Behavioral Theory Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner) Learning based on reinforcement (punishment) or punishment Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Behavior modification Stimulus & Response Learning based on association of a stimulus that does not ordinarily elicit a response with another stimulus that does elicit the response.

Behavioral Theory Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura Modelling (Role model) Theory that behaviors are learned by observing and imitating models Observational learning Models Importance of values and thoughts in imitating behavior of a model Practical implications?

Behaviorism & Social Learning Development results from learning Behaviorism – a mechanistic theory Continuous change Quantitative change Importance of the environment Associative learning

Cognitive Theory Socio-Cultural Theory L. Vygotsky Jean Piaget Cognitive Development Community & culture influence on development  Focus is the social, cultural, and historical complex of which the child is part. Social Interaction Zone of proximal development – The difference between what a child can do alone and with help Scaffolding – Temporary support to help a child master a task. Sensorimotor (0-2) Preoperational (2-6) Concrete Operational (6-11) Formal Operation (11-adulthood)

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory Transmission of culture to new generation Beliefs, customs, skills Social interaction necessary to learn culture Cooperative dialogue with more knowledgeable members of society Zone of proximal Scaffolding

Cognitive Theory Moral Development Kohlberg Paras 1: Moraliti Pra- konvensional (4-9 tahun) Orientasi dendaan dan patuh/taat Hedonisme Instrumental/Orientasi Egoistik Paras 2:Peringkat Konvensional (10-15 tahun) Moraliti “budak baik” Moraliti mengekalkan susunan sosial & autoriti Paras 3:Peringkat Pasca Konvensional Moraliti kontrak, hak individu dan undang-undang secara demokrasi Orientasi prinsip-prinsip moral yang universal dan beretika

THE ECOLOGICAL-SYSTEMS APPROACH Human Ecological System U. Bronfenbrenner View of development that sees the individual as inseparable from the social context Urie Bronfenbrenner’s bio-ecological theory Understanding processes and contexts of development Micro system Meso system Exosystem Macrosystem Chronosystem

Ecological Systems Theory

RESEARCH METHODS IN STUDYING CHILDREN

How theory and research work together Which theory is generally accepted today? What is the relationship between theory and research?

Research methods Qualitative and quantitative research Scientific method – system of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry Identifying a problem Formulating hypotheses Collecting data Analyzing the data Disseminating findings

Sampling Groups of participants chosen to represent the entire population The sample should adequately represent the population under study Generalization Random selection

Forms of data collection Naturalistic and laboratory observations Parental self-reports Clinical interview Open-ended interview Structured interview Questionnaire Psychophysiological Methods

Systematic Observation Observe respondent in their natural setting Naturalistic Observation In the “field” or natural environment where behavior happens Structured observation Laboratory situation set up to evoke behavior of interest All participants have equal chance to display behavior Participant observation Incognito Record data Audio Video Manual

Interviews Clinical Interview Flexible, conversational style Probes for participant’s point of view Structured Interview Each participant is asked same questions in same way May use questionnaires, get answers from groups

Psychophysiological Methods Measures of autonomic nervous system activity Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, pupils, stress hormones Measures of Brain Function EEG Functional brain imaging (fMRI)

Basic research designs Case studies Collect various information about a subject to be studied (people/event) Make a conclusion about subject understudied. Ethnographic studies Participant observation Correlational studies – To examine the relationship between 2 variables (independent and dependent variables) Research intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between two variables exists Problems of control and interpretation of causality Survey - A study on respondent’s views  on certain issues Use Questionnaires/Structured interview schedule

Correlation Coefficients Magnitude Size of the number between 0 and 1. Closer to one (positive or negative) is a stronger relationship Direction Indicated by + or - sign. Positive (+) means, as one variable increases, so does the other Negative (-) means, as one variable increase, the other decreases.

Correlations

Experimental studies To examine the cause & effect of a phenomena understudied Rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other. Independent variable - the condition over which the experimenter has direct control Dependent variable - the condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable Experimental group and control group

Independent and Dependent Variables Experimenter changes, or manipulates Expected to cause changes in another variable. Dependent Experimenter measures, but does not manipulate Expected to be influenced by the independent variable

Modified Experiments Field Experiments Natural Experiment Compare differences in treatment that already exist Groups chosen to match characteristics as much as possible Field Experiments Use rare opportunities for natural assignment in natural settings

Designs for Studying Development Longitudinal Same participants studied repeatedly at different ages Cross-sectional People of differing ages all studied at the same time Longitudinal- Cross-sectional Same groups of different-aged people studied repeatedly as they change ages. Microgenetic Same participant studied repeatedly over a short period as they master a task

Children’s Research Rights Protection from harm Right to Informed consent Knowledge of results Beneficial treatments

Children’s Research Rights Avoidance of deception Debriefing, providing a full account and justification of research activities, should take place with children, but does not always work as well Right to privacy and confidentiality Children’s Research Rights