By: Ellyn Polley

 One causes the other  Useful to establish claims of policy  Event A is necessary for event B to occur  Ex.- The Dog hit the table. The vase fell off the table.

 Cause and Effect ◦ One thing causes another  Correlation ◦ Two events seem to occur together or to be otherwise associated ◦ Ex.- washing your car, then it rains

1. Must distinguish between cause and effect ◦ Ex. Is and obnoxious person that way because he or she is ignored or is this person ignored because he or she is obnoxious? 2. Must show that the cause is sufficient to produce the effect ◦ Ex. The crime rate went down six months before hiring a new police chief. Questions that need to be answered before causality is shown: Can a claim that credits the chief for the lower crime rate be made?

2. Must show that the cause is sufficient to produce the effect ◦ Ex. The crime rate went down six months before hiring a new police chief. ◦ Questions that need to be answered before causality is shown:  Can a claim that credits the chief for the lower crime rate be made?  Do the policies implemented by the new chief directly affect the rate?  Did previous programs in place before the chief was hired have any effect?

3. Alternative Causes ◦ Other causes may produce the same effect ◦ Must rule out other causes ◦ Ex. Improved grades could be a result of better study habits, better teachers, or better learning resources

 British Philosopher ( )  Devised five methods to analyze causal relationships 1.Method of Agreement 2.Method of Difference 3.Joint Method of Agreement and Difference 4.Method of Concomitant Variation 5.Method of Residues

 An unusual amount of students suffered from nausea in one afternoon. The nurse suspects it is a result of something the students had for lunch. She needs to support the conclusion that Eating _____ causes nausea.  She uses Mill’s Method to help

 What did they have for lunch?  Student 1 ate pizza, coleslaw, soda and a cookie  Student 2 ate a hot dog, French fries, coleslaw and tea  Student 3 ate pizza, coleslaw, and tea  Student 4 ate fries and coleslaw  The nurse concluded that coleslaw caused the nausea

 Two students went to the nurse, one was nauseous the other was not.  The students had the same lunch but the nauseous one had coleslaw and the other did not.  The nurse can conclude that the coleslaw causes nausea because it appeared in one case but not the other.

 Two groups came to the nurse, one suffered nausea and ate coleslaw the other group felt fine and did not eat coleslaw.  The nurse arrives at the same conclusion

 Student 1 ate no coleslaw and feels fine  Student 2 ate one bite of coleslaw and feels a little queasy  Student 3 ate coleslaw and is ill  Student 4 ate a two servings and is hospitalized

 The nurse already knows that pizza causes a headache and the tea causes a rash  A student comes in saying they are suffering from a headache, nausea, and a rash. They ate pizza, tea, and coleslaw for lunch  They can conclude that the additional effect of nausea is caused by the additional circumstance of coleslaw

1. A _____ is when two events seem to occur together. 2. T/F – If event A occurs, then event B must occur. 3. ____ and ____ is when one event causes the other event to happen

1. Correlation 2. False 3. Cause and Effect