Introduction and Overview S PARTAN S OURCES

 Aristophanes – Lysistrata 980 – 1321  Diodorus  Herodotus , – 51, d,  Plutarch, Lycurgus, 6-9, 12-14, 24-26, 28  Thucydides ,  Tyrtaeus  Xenophon, Constitution of the Spartans

 Source criticism is a crucial aspect of any study of ancient Sparta: it is important to understand that there is no ancient text that can serve as a ‘main source’, especially because the most extensive accounts, e.g. Plutarch’s works on Sparta, were written in the Roman period.  The information about Sparta’s history and culture was not recorded by Spartans. Apart from two poets of the seventh century BC, namely Tyrtaeus and Alcman, we do not have any literary sources that originate from Sparta. Sparta was not easily accessible to strangers, and therefore many accounts of this period were probably written without personal knowledge of the place, and with little access to primary evidence. Xenophon is a noteworthy exception, but this does not mean that his account is without difficulties.  Since Sparta played a central role in Greek history its foreign policy and military campaigns are prominent in the historical texts that cover Greece, especially Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon’.  The goings-on behind the scenes are difficult to reconstruct, usually by combining the few details about events in Sparta reported by outsiders with our general knowledge of the Spartan constitution and careful analysis of Sparta’s activities abroad.

Lyric poetry; mid-seventh century BC; probably Spartan. Tyrtaeus lived much earlier than the classical period, but he had an influence not only on later sources but also on Spartan culture. His poetry continued to be recited in public and private in Sparta, and it covers some of the ideals for which the Spartans were so famous. Today Tyrtaeus’ poetry is considered an invaluable primary source for early Sparta which gives us some insight into a time when momentous changes were still a matter of living memory. Later authors e.g. Plutarch also realised that Tyrtaeus was a crucial authentic source for early Sparta, and therefore quoted passages to illustrate arguments about early Spartan history. Apart from a few lines of Tyrtaeus which were discovered on papyrus, these quotations ensured the survival of the few poems which are known today.

Historiography, wrote c. 450s-420s BC; from Halicarnassus. Herodotus was from Halicarnassus in Asia Minor, and is therefore one of the few Greek authors of the classical period who were not Athenian. He did, however, know Athens well and, some of his views are influenced by the growing conflict between Athens and Sparta in the mid-fifth century. Most of his work is based on original research and inquiries. He often refers to unnamed informants “The Spartans say,”and therefore was able to present different points of view on many issues. In some instances he also claims to have based his account on Spartan sources, although we have no way of telling how much of this information is indeed authentic. Herodotus generally admires Sparta’s laws and the virtue and courage they inspired in individual Spartans. His account of the Persian Wars, especially the account of the battle of Thermopylae, had a lasting influence on ancient as well as modern perceptions of Sparta. Herodotus does, however, also present a less admirable side of Sparta.

Historiography; wrote c BC; Athenian. Thucydides’ main theme is the conflict between Sparta and Athens. As an Athenian, he was aware that readers might question his access to information and he explains his situation: ‘I lived through the whole war, being of an age to form judgements, and followed it with close attention, so as to acquire accurate information. Moreover, it befell me also to be banished from my own country for twenty years and being conversant with affairs on both sides, especially with those of the Peloponnesians by reason of my banishment’ - Thuc , It is difficult to tell how much he really knew about exact details. Even he said Sparta herself remains a somewhat mysterious place. Thucydides does not present the Spartans in a deliberately negative light: both sides receive praise and blame for their actions. However, Thucydides’ general view of Sparta seems to be strongly influenced by an Athenian perspective, not so much as enemy, but rather as a complete opposite.

Attic Drama – Comedy; plays dated BC (Lysistrata 411 BC); Athenian. Aristophanes’ plays were written to entertain an Athenian audience at one particular festival. They deal with the political situation of the day, but, since playwrights were competing for the audience’s favour, they were probably careful not to present political opinions which would annoy a large part of the audience. The Lysistrata is among a number of Aristophanes’ comedies which supported peace with Sparta. However the debate about war and peace is mostly conducted in very general and of course comical terms. Aristophanes offers us a number of comedy Spartans, both male and female: the play is particularly useful to observe Athenian stereotypes of Sparta in this period.

Historiography, philosophical writings, biography; wrote c. 380s- 350s Xenophon was a mercenary in Agesilaus II campaign against the Persians in Asia Minor. He was exiled from Athens and he may have spent some time in Sparta. Late ancient biographical sources suggest that Xenophon’s sons participated in the Spartan education system. The Spartans gave Xenophon an estate close to Olympia. Xenophon had reason to be grateful to the Spartans and he had access to first hand information about Sparta. Xenophon’s reputation has never been very good among classical scholars, and his work on Sparta has also found many critics, often on the grounds that it differs from the more detailed account of Plutarch. Since recent scholarship has begun to pay more attention to the issue of primary evidence, Xenophon’s account has been assessed more favourably. Nevertheless, Xenophon’s description remains vague in many respects, a kind of political pamphlet, defending Sparta against its critics. The text probably depicts a somewhat idealised Sparta, and Xenophon’s representation of Lycurgus is very favourable.

Biography, philosophical writings; wrote c. AD ; from Chaeronea (Boeotia). Plutarch was a very prolific writer and diligent researcher: his biographical works are based on extensive library research. Therefore, he often preserves information that is otherwise lost. The Life of Lycurgus is a good example of this. Much of his material also dates from after Sparta’s decline in the fourth century, and any information in his text that is not explicitly identified as taken from a genuinely archaic or classical source should be considered as secondary material. The Life of Lycurgus is particularly valuable as a survey of ancient traditions about Lycurgus and Sparta, and it also illustrates attitudes in Plutarch’s own time. As well historical detail his aim is to draw characters which can be instructive as moral examples. Plutarch produced a number of works which deal with Sparta or individual Spartans: Lives of Lysander, Agesilaos, Agis and Cleomenes III; as part of the Moralia: Sayings of Spartans, Sayings of Spartan Women.

Diodorus (universal history, C1st BC, from Sicily) depends heavily on earlier sources and preserves some genuine information of the classical period, although it is often difficult to determine exactly where his information comes from. Aristotle (philosophy, C4th BC, from Macedonia, based in Athens) was interested in the different constitutions of Greek states. Aristotle’s Constitution of the Spartans was used extensively by later authors, including Plutarch. He offers valuable criticism of the Spartan system, informed by Sparta’s decline in the fourth century.

Complete the following table and then create a timeline to show the period over which these people were writing. TyrtaeusHerodotusThucydidesAristophanesXenophonPlutarch When they were writing The nature of the Source The reliability and usefulness