I. Religious and Political Innovations A. Religious Reformation, 1517 – The papacy, in 1500, was both gaining stature and suffering from internal corruption. 2. The wealth gained from economic prosperity had allowed more than 54 churches to be added to the churches power. 3. However, this new wealth had also attracted ambitious men who became the source of scandel.

4. The height of these new building projects was the construction of Saint Peter’s Basilica in Rome, overseen by Pope Leo X. 5. Pope Leo was a member of the Medici family of Florence and was more of a man of action than a spiritual leader. 6. For example, one of the ways he raised money for the Basilica was by authorizing an Indulgence – a forgiveness of the punishments due for past sins.

7. In a German state lived a young professor of scripture named Martin Luther ( ). 8. Luther had a problem with the selling of Indulgences based on his interpretation of Paul’s letter to Romans. 9. Luther argued that salvation did not come from doing good works but by faith alone. 10. Luther challenged the pope to a debate and the pope sent a representative to led him into open disagreement of certain church doctrines. (95 Theses)

11. The pope excommunicates Luther which leads Luther to reject the pope’s authority leading to the Protestant Reformation. 12. Luther insisted that the only was to salvation was through faith in Jesus Christ. 13. He also insisted that Christian belief must be based on the word of God in the Bible rather that on the authority of the pope in Rome.

14. This Protestant Reformation led others to further dispute church explanation and even Luther’s. 15. One such person was John Calvin (1509 – 1564), who believed that faith alone was not sufficient for salvation but only granted to those God had been “predestined” for it. 16. Calvinists displayed simplicity in dress, life, and worship. 17. The reformers appealed to religious sentiments, but there was also a political component such as the desire of German princes’ to be independent of Rome.

18. The Catholic Church was very upset about the intensity of Protestant Reformers’ so the Church took on its own reforms. 19. A council convened at the city of Trent reforming the education, discipline, and practices of the Roman Catholic clergy. 20. The council also reaffirmed the supremacy of the pope and clarified Catholic beliefs such as indulgences. 21. A new religious order emerged known as the Jesuits – society of Jesus started by Ignatius of Loyola in 1534.

B. The Failure of Empire, 1519 – While the Protestant Reformation shattered any hope of Christian unity, another hope to create a Pan- European Christian coalition failed as well. 2. The medieval institution of the Holy Roman Empire – a loose federation of German states and principalities – was lead by Charles V descendent of the Hapsburgs. 3. He attempted to lead a Latin Christian coalition to stop the encroachment of the Ottoman Empire in Southeastern Europe.

Beginning of modern science Scientific method: Depends upon logic, observation, and reason rather than faith Created the technologies and techniques that built the modern world Created paradigm of our solar system

Earth revolves around the sun Book On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres Heliocentric theory: Sun is the center of the universe

Preferred inductive reasoning and facts over theory Invented the scientific method

“I recant” Invented the telescope, pendulum clock, thermometer, water pump, and sector. Discovered speed of acceleration for gravity

Deductive logic Deduced the existence of God Invented Cartesian geometry (xy axis) “I think therefore I am”

The Principia Three Laws of Motion Defined gravity and its laws Invented optics and calculus

Developed the modern scientific method Universe ordered according to natural laws Discovered that scientific laws can be discovered by human reason Took the role of a deity or god out of the study of the universe Mechanical views of the universe Deistic view of God