Explain the following quote “The life unexamined is not worth living” ~Socrates How does this quote apply to psychology?

What is psychology and how has it developed?

Students will: Know: -Definition of psychology (≠ study of mind) -Scientific method used by psychologists -Ethical limitations on psychologists -Correlation does not imply causation!!!

What is Psychology? Psychology is the science of brain processes and behavior From the Greek; psyche = “soul” + logos = “science” Greek symbol “Psi” 

How did we go from “science of the soul” to psychology? Scientific understanding of behavior has been limited by scientific knowledge which has been limited by scientific equipment. Of each theorist ask: What equipment did they have then? How did it limit knowledge? How did limited knowledge limit understanding?

What is the Early History of Psychological Thought? Greeks –how does the “soul/mind” give rise to memory, sensation, movement, etc. –where is the “soul/mind” located Descartes (1600s) –dualism (mind/body problem) how does physical matter give rise to thought, sensation, etc. how does physical matter give rise to thought, sensation, etc. –mechanistic view (e.g., reflexes) –pineal gland as the interface between soul and body

What is the Early History of Psychological Thought? Plato ( ) Plato was interested in moral philosophy and despised natural philosophy (that is, science) as an inferior and unworthy sort of knowledge. Believed we are born with complete knowledge within our soul. Learning – a process of inner reflection to discover the knowledge within us.

What is the Early History of Psychological Thought? Aristotle ( ) –Knowledge acquired through experience. Four Laws of Association –Law of Similarity –Law of Contrast –Law of Contiguity –Law of Frequency

What is the Early History of Psychological Thought? Descartes ( ) –Mind body dualism –Reflexes –Behavior controlled by the mind or will. Dualistic notion of human behavior suggested at least some components of behavior could be scientifically investigated.

History of Psychology

Phrenology: Franz Gall ( )

First Psychologists (late 1800s-early 1900s) Wilhelm Wundt “father of experimental psychology” - first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, studied reaction time to simple and two-choice stimuli

The Early Era and Roots of Psychology Psychophysics Early psychologists, doing research on sensation and sensory experience, noticed interesting aspects of the functioning of the senses.

The Early Era and Roots of Psychology Charles Darwin The origin of species (1859) The descent of man (1871) In his presentation of compelling evidence that humans and other animal species were related, Charles Darwin leads to comparative psychologists, who use this perspective, are specialists who compare different animal species.

The Early Era and Roots of Psychology Behaviorism John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner –Behaviorism concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not mental processes. –Behaviorists primarily seek to study the observable behaviors associated with learning.

The Early Era and Roots of Psychology Behaviorism – John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner “Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior.” -- John B. Watson, John B. Watson, 1913

The Early Era and Roots of Psychology Behaviorism and Studies of Learning The early question posed by behaviorists in the mid-20th century, such as Clark Hull’s work with rats in the area of maze learning, have given way to complex questions about how humans learn to be aggressive and violent.

Modern Psychology Views Psychoanalytic view emphasizes the unconscious mind Behaviorism focuses on objective and measurable behaviors Humanistic psychology emphasizes the inner- self and the importance of subjective feelings Cognitive psychology focuses on mental function and reasoning

Modern Psychology Views Psychobiology views behavior as reflecting brain processes Evolutionary psychology asserts that certain behavioral characteristics are subject to natural selection Cultural psychology examines the influence of culture and ethnic practice on people’s behavior

Areas of Psychology Clinical – psychotherapy, assessment, diagnosis Developmental – How do we develop across life? Social – How do people behave in groups? Biopsychology – How does the brain influence behavior? Cognitive – How do we think and perceive? Personality – What basic traits make up a person’s personality?

Psychology Degrees By Area

Careers in Psychology Clinical work – e.g., psychotherapist*^ Clinical work – e.g., psychotherapist*^ Academic – e.g., professor/researcher* Academic – e.g., professor/researcher* Business – e.g., industrial psychologist*^ Business – e.g., industrial psychologist*^ Journalism – e.g., science writer* Journalism – e.g., science writer* Technology – e.g., software developer Technology – e.g., software developer *requires graduate degree *requires graduate degree ^requires license ^requires license

How do psychologists learn about human behavior? Psychology ≠ Philosophy  Scientific Method Four Steps of Scientific Method 1.Defining the problem 2.Forming a hypothesis 3.Testing the hypothesis 4. Drawing a conclusion

What qualifies  research as science? Psychological research must meet certain criteria in order to be considered scientific. Research must be: 1. Replicable 2. Falsifiable 3. Precise 4. Parsimonious

Replicable Research is replicable when others can repeat it and get the same results. Q: If something is only true once, should we trust it?

Falsifiable A good theory or hypothesis also must be falsifiable, which means that it must be stated in a way that makes it possible to reject it. In other words, we have to be able to prove a theory or hypothesis wrong.

Falsifiable Example: Some people theorize that the Loch Ness Monster not only exists but has become intelligent enough to elude detection by hiding in undiscovered, undetectable, underwater caves. This theory is not falsifiable. Researchers can never find these undiscovered caves or the monster that supposedly hides in them, and they have no way to prove this theory wrong.

Precise To make hypotheses more precise, psychologists use operational definitions to define the variables they study. Operational definitions state exactly how a variable will be measured. Ex.: A psychologist conducts an experiment to find out whether toddlers are happier in warm weather or cool weather. She needs to have an operational definition of happiness so that she can measure precisely how happy the toddlers are. She might operationally define happiness as “the number of smiles per hour.

Parsimonious The principle of parsimony maintains that researchers should apply the simplest explanation possible to any set of observations. Example: Suppose a student consistently falls asleep in her statistics class. She theorizes that before each class, her statistics professor secretly sprays her seat with a nerve gas that makes her very drowsy. If she had applied the principle of parsimony, she would not have come up with this theory. She can account for her sleepiness with a much simpler and more likely explanation: she finds statistics boring.

The Experiment An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aim to confirm a hypothesis. An experiment involves a set of controlled conditions that aim to confirm a hypothesis. Hypothesis refers to a statement of cause and effect: Hypothesis refers to a statement of cause and effect: “Higher environmental temperatures lead to more aggression.” “Higher environmental temperatures lead to more aggression.”

Experimental Variables To test a hypothesis, an experimenter defines the variables of the hypothesis: –Cause: Independent variable (IV) temperature: can be manipulated with intent temperature: can be manipulated with intent –Effect: Dependent variable (DV) aggression: # of acts of verbal/aggression in an hour aggression: # of acts of verbal/aggression in an hour The experimenter “manipulates” the IV and measures the DV to test the hypothesis.

Experimental Issues Controls are important for determining causality –the only difference between the experimental and control groups is the presence or absence of the IV. Placebo effects represent changes in behavior that are related to expectations of a treatment. –placebo effects are controlled by a “blind” control group Experimenter bias refers to expectations that influence a participant’s behavior. –example: Clever Hans, the horse who could do math –can be controlled using double blind procedures

Non-Experimental Research Naturalistic observation refers to systematic recording of behavior in a natural state or habitat. –e.g. observing apes in the wild Surveys are instruments designed to sample attitudes or behaviors. –e.g., asking students at a rally how they feel about animal rights issues A case study is an in-depth study of a single person. –e.g., Freud used the case study method to study anxiety Correlations refer to looking at the relationship between two variables without manipulating them.

Correlation Techniques The correlation technique assesses the degree of association between 2 variables. Correlations vary in direction: –Positive association: increases in the value of variable 1 are associated with increases in variable 2 (e.g., smoking and risk of cancer) –Negative association: increases in variable 1 are associated with decreases in the variable 2 (e.g., years of education and risk of Alzheimer’s disease) –No relation: values of variable 1 are not related to variable 2 (e.g., years of education and height) Correlations also vary in strength of the relationship -1 to 1

Interpreting Correlations Fig. 1.5

Correlation Take Home Line: Correlation does NOT imply causation!

Stanley Milgram’s Obedience Study 1963 social psychology experiment, subjects thought they were shocking another person to promote “learning” 1963 social psychology experiment, subjects thought they were shocking another person to promote “learning” Many subjects delivered high level shocks and were upset when they later learned the true nature of the experiment Many subjects delivered high level shocks and were upset when they later learned the true nature of the experiment This study, and other factors, led to much more stringent APA research guidelines This study, and other factors, led to much more stringent APA research guidelines

What are APA Ethical Guidelines for human participants? Informed consent is an explanation of a study and the responsibilities of experimenter and participant. Confidentiality of study information must be maintained. Debriefing refers to explaining the research process to the participants at the end of the study. Deception involving participants must be justified. Deception involving participants must be justified.

What are the APA Ethical Guidelines for animal subjects? Researchers must ensure “appropriate consideration of [the animal’s] comfort, health, and humane treatment.” Researchers must ensure “appropriate consideration of [the animal’s] comfort, health, and humane treatment.” Animals may not be subjected to “pain or stress” when an alternative procedure is available. Animals may not be subjected to “pain or stress” when an alternative procedure is available. Monkey TortureMonkey Torture (3:45) Monkey Torture