Philosophes 3 rd Period 2014

For Each Philosophe: Background Story? Friends (enemies) in High Places? Core Beliefs? Most Important Writings? - General message of each writing Lasting Impact/Influence? Epitaph?

François-Marie Voltaire ( ) Background: Voltaire was born in Paris and was the youngest of five. His father was a notary and his mother was from an aristocratic background. He was educated by Jesuits. He wrote some politically offensive books and plays that offended French nobility and landed him in prison twice. He spent in Great Britain, and lived outside of Geneva for a short period of time, but got into conflict with the conservative Calvinists. Friends in high Places:  Fredrick the Great  Catherine the Great  Duchy of Lorraine  Countess Emilie de Chatelet: mathematician Epitaph:

Voltaire Core Beliefs: Freedom of religion, freedom of expression, separation of church and state. Humans must continually be ameliorated. Most Important Writings:  Candide (1759): Satirical, addressed war, religious persecution, unwarranted optimism. Inspired by the Earthquake in Lisbon, Portugal.  Elements of Philosophy of Newton (1738): with Chatelet.  Age of Louis XIV (1751): Historiography  Letters on the English Parliament (1733): Published in France, praised English religious freedom and criticized French government. Impact: most influential Enlightenment figure. Inspired ideas that led to the French and American Revolutions, and brought down the Ancien’ Regime.

Montesquieu “Montesquieu advocated constitutionalism, the preservation of civil liberties, the abolition of slavery, gradualism, moderation, peace, internationalism, social and economic justice with due respect to national and local tradition. He believed in justice and the rule of law; detested all forms of extremism and fanaticism; put his faith in the balance of power and the division of authority as a weapon against despotic rule by individuals or groups or majorities; and approved of social equality, but not the point which it threatened individual liberty; and out of liberty, but not to the point where it threatened to disrupt orderly government.” –Sir Isaiah Berlin

Charles Louis de Secondat Montesquieu ( ) Born Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu Lawyer, noble of the robe, member of provincial parliament, belonged to Bordeaux Academy of Science Lived comfortably within French society, but felt reform was needed Published Persian Letters in 1721 in which he satirized institutions and cruelty and irrationality of European life Published Spirit of the Laws in 1748 Very influential and exhibited internal tensions of the Enlightenment Held British government as a good model Favored a constitutional monarchy Concluded that form of government depended on the characteristics of the country’s populous Parlements were good examples of intermediary association One of his most influential ideas was division of power in government His ideas profoundly affected constitutional governments in the future Epitaph:

Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( ) Was orphaned at an early age and had a troubled youth. Had many children, all of whom were “donated” to foundling hospitals Literary jack of all trades: playwright, contributor to encyclopedia, and author Wrote: Moral Effects of the Arts and Sciences (argued that civilization corrupted human nature) Origin of Inequality (distribution of income) Emile (separate spheres and education) The Social Construct (Europe was an aggregate of competing individuals) Epitaph: We have to cultivate our own garden.

Rousseau Rousseau lived a rather bitter and lonely life, with few powerful friends or longstanding relationships. As such, he had little influence on his own generation. He did however massively influence political thought in ensuing generations, especially that of the French Revolution. Rousseau also unfortunately established many antifeminist principles, such as the natural superiority of men and the separation of gender roles.

Denis Diderot Background story: Denis was born in Langres, Champagne. At first, Diderot was a follower of Voltaire. Diderot greatly admired his sister, Denise, otherwise known as “a female Socrates”. He began his formal education at a Jesuit college in Langres, then entered the College d’Harcourt in Paris. He abandoned entering the clergy, avoided law, and finally settled with writing. Friends in high places: Denis was amicable with Rousseau and d’Alembert, a co-author and editor of the Encyclopedie. He was opposed by the Roman Catholic Church in his endeavors, most of which were literary. Core beliefs: Diderot believed in free will, a materialistic view of the universe, fatalism, atheism, determinism, and that heredity determines human behavior. Epitaph: Freedom is yours to do whatever you will.

Diderot Writings: Encyclopedie – one of the greatest monuments of the Enlightenment and the most monumental undertaking of in print culture; embodied the Enlightenment spirit and illustrated the Enlightenment’s determination to probe life on earth rather than in the religious realm. Jacquest the Fatalist and His Master – challenged convention regarding novels and their structure and content. Rameau’s Nephew – characterized consumer desire; influenced articles and sermons. Lasting influence/impact: Diderot broadened literary audiences with his work, succeeding in fueling progress and change in eighteenth century Europe. He provided an invaluable source of knowledge for many Europeans.