Research completed! Now for the hard part: Writing the Paper! Barbara Meyers, MS Interim Director of Publications American Geophysical Union Writing the Paper! B.M.Ford Copyright 2009

300+ Years Ago 1665 First Scientific Journals Published: Journal des Scavans in France Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in London Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

170+ Years Ago 1838 First Peer-Reviewed Journal Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society published quarterly Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

What is a scientific paper? A scientific paper is a written and published report describing original research results. »Robert A. Day Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Defining a Scientific Paper An acceptable primary scientific publication must be the first disclosure containing sufficient information to enable peers (1)To assess observations, (2)To repeat experiments, and (3)To evaluate intellectual processes More... Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Defining the Scientific Paper [the paper] must be susceptible to sensory perception, essentially permanent, available to the scientific community without restriction, and available for regular screening by one or more of the major recognized secondary services. »Council of Science Editors Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Who’s your audience? Specialized journal General discipline journal General science journal Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

First Steps Order and organize and outline Write with a sense of purpose Clarity and conciseness Narrative + Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

A Few Tips Start writing before you finish researching Develop a provisional title/outline in your mind if not on paper; share this with co-authors Writing sometimes leads to inconsistencies in the research Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

IMRAD Introduction Methods Results And Discussion The IMRAD Method for Journal Articles Initiated in the late 1880’s; ANSI Z39.16 IMRAD Standard Ratified in Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

What was the problem? Your answer is the Introduction –Definition of the problem must be reasonably stated –Present literature review and choice of methodology –State principle results = capstone of the Introduction –Define specialized terms or abbreviations Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Introduction Basics Keep it short Tell why you did the research Explain its importance Hook your audience with the first line Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

The Methods Section Tell exactly … What hypothesis was tested How the study was designed How the study was carried out How the data were analyzed Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Methods Basics Write in chronological order –BUT, describe related methods together Use subheads –“Match” with those in Results for internal consistency Be precise Include tabular material Do NOT mix in what should be covered in Results Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

The Results Section Two ingredients (1) Overall description of the experiment without repeating experimental details from Methods (2)Your data –Present representative versus endlessly repetitive data Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Results Basics Answer questions posed in the Introduction Tables and illustrations should be able to stand alone Tell the story with an example of a typical result; summarize all results; provide an unexpected result Present statistics well; condense but don’t confuse Use carefully selected illustrations Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

The Discussion Section Components include –Principles, relationships, generalizations –Exceptions or lack of correlation –How results and interpretations agree (or contrast) –Theoretical or practical applications –Conclusion drawn from the results more… Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

The Discussion Section “Discussion” should include as well Clear statement of the main findings Highlight any shortcomings of the methods used Compare the results with other published findings Discuss the implications of the findings Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Discussion Basics Don’t use the “squid technique” –“… the author is doubtful about his facts or his reasoning and retreats behind a protective cloud of ink” »Doug Savile Show factual relationships among observed facts End with a short summary regarding the significance of the work AND the need for further study Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Constructing the Title Indicate subject matter –NOT why the paper was written; what the findings were; what conclusions were drawn Brevity = soul of wit AND vital to successful communication Be interesting; but not misleading Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Title Basics Simpler = Better Consider target audience Read by thousands Few are too short; many are too long Use specific vs. general terms Avoid excessive adjectives and noun strings Syntax: watch your word order Abbreviations & Jargon, NOT Don’t be a sensationalist! Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Structuring the Abstract Describe the essence of the paper in a stand- alone paragraph Include 4 basic elements Why the study was done What was done What was found What was concluded 150 words maximum = unstructured abstract 250 words maximum = structured abstract Be clear; concise; avoid unnecessary detail Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Producing a Useful Reference List Restrict list to references with a direct bearing on the work described Use the journal’s reference style Check the “Instructions for Authors” to be sure all necessary details for each reference are included Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Final Comment: Publication Ethics Umbrella term covering the processes involved in research and the publication of results including Advertising Authorship ConfidentialityConflict of Interest Editorial FreedomMedia Peer ReviewRedundant Publication Research EthicsResearch Integrity Supplements Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009

Thanks for your attention. ? ? ? ? ? ?? ?Any Questions? Writing the Paper! B.M. Ford Copyright 2009