Health - a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity World Health Organization 1946 Biodiversity -“the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems” Convention on Biological Diversity, Article 2

DiseaseEnvironmental change MalariaDeforestation Nipah virusEncroachment, agricultural intensification HookwormDeforestation leading to silting Hemorrhagic virusesLand use changes, encroachment LeishmaniasisDeforestation SchistosomiasisIntensive irrigation FilariasisIrrigation, standing water Arboviral diseasesDeforestation, irrigation, agriculture Lyme diseaseHabitat fragmentation/ reforestation

– Direct linkages consumable goods and services – Indirect linkages services provided by large-scale ecosystem interactions Related in two broad ways:

– Direct linkages consumable goods and services – Indirect linkages services provided by large-scale ecosystem interactions

Meeting daily caloric and nutritional needs Food relates to biodiversity via: – Edible wild and domesticated species – Genetic libraries – Ecosystem services

DrugPurposeSource AmoxicillinAntibioticFungus CaptoprilAntihypertensiveAnimal DigitoxinCardiotonicPlant MorphineAnalgesicPlant PenicillinAntibioticFungus QuinineAntimalarial, antipyreticPlant SalicinAnalgesicPlant VinblastineAntitumorPlant CodeineAnalgesicPlant ArtemisinAntimalarialPlant

SpeciesSampleEnvironmental stressor Marine/freshwater invertebrates Distribution and abundanceChemical pollution MossesTissueChemical pollution Wild birds Egg shells, feathers, blood, tissueChemical pollution Amphibians Distribution and abundance, deformitiesMultiple/undetermined Sea turtles Pathological changesMultiple/undetermined Sea otters Distribution and abundance, blood, tissue Chemical pollution, ecosystem integrity ChickensBloodViral exposure Wild birds and mammalsBloodViral exposure Domestic mammalsBlood Viral exposure, chemical pollution

– Direct linkages consumable goods and services – Indirect linkages services provided by large-scale ecosystem interactions

PollutantOrganism Hydrocarbons (oil, kerosene)Bacteria, fungi Cyanide, heavy metalsWillow trees PesticidesWetland plants Heavy metalsFerns, legumes, grasses, sunflower plants

– Direct linkages consumable goods and services – food – pharmaceuticals – medical models – sentinels – Indirect linkages services provided by large-scale ecosystem interactions – water – waste removal and decomposition – biotic regulation – psychological health Related in two broad ways:

Does biodiversity loss per se drive changes in human health? Human Health Biodiversity Loss Environmental Degradation Biodiversity Loss Human Health Environmental Degradation - Or -could changes in human health and biodiversity both be driven by environmental degradation? Would that change our interpretation of observed patterns?

Health connects all species – Strongly positive links between human health and biodiversity exist – Links are mediated by complex interactions Causality is not always clear Conflicts Lack of valuation of the benefits More research is needed, specifically a multidisciplinary approach

What is the main argument? What are the conclusions? What evidence did they use? Are there alternative explanations, causes? What’s the platform? Does it matter? What do YOU think?

Based on the reading, what would be the ideal city? –What are the jobs? –Where does food come from? Energy? Water? Waste go? –What are the educational priorities? The governmental priorities? –What happens outside of the city? –And why?