Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Respiration Major function is to supply the body with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide Involves both the respiratory and the circulatory systems Four processes that supply the body with O 2 and dispose of CO 2

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Respiration Pulmonary ventilation (breathing): movement of air into and out of the lungs External respiration: O 2 and CO 2 exchange between the lungs and the blood Transport of Gases: O 2 and CO 2 in the blood Internal respiration: O 2 and CO 2 exchange between systemic blood vessels and tissues Respiratory system Circulatory system

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Respiratory System: Functional Anatomy Major organs include: Nose, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi and their branches Lungs and alveoli

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.1 Nasal cavity Nostril Oral cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Carina of trachea Left main (primary) bronchus Right main (primary) bronchus Right lung Left lung Diaphragm

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Functional Anatomy– consists of 2 zones Respiratory zone: site of gas exchange Microscopic structures: respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli Conducting zone: passageways leading to gas exchange sites Includes all other respiratory structures Respiratory muscles: diaphragm and other muscles that promote ventilation Note: functions in respiratory system but truly part of skeletal system

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Nose Functions Provides an airway for respiration Moistens and warms the entering air Filters and cleans inspired air Serves as a resonating chamber for speech Houses olfactory receptors Useful for storing beads, corn, and other small objects…see visual aid

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Nose Two regions: external nose and nasal cavity 1.External nose: root, bridge, dorsum nasi, and apex Philtrum: a shallow vertical groove inferior to the apex Nostrils (nares): bounded laterally by the alae

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.2a Epicranius, frontal belly Ala of nose Root and bridge of nose Dorsum nasi Apex of nose Philtrum Naris (nostril) (a) Surface anatomy

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.2b Frontal bone Nasal bone Septal cartilage Maxillary bone (frontal process) Lateral process of septal cartilage Minor alar cartilages Major alar cartilages Dense fibrous connective tissue (b) External skeletal framework

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. The Nose 2.Nasal cavity: in and posterior to the external nose Divided by a midline nasal septum Posterior nasal apertures (choanae) open into the nasal pharynx Roof: ethmoid and sphenoid bones Floor: hard and soft palates

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Nasal Cavity Vestibule: nasal cavity superior to the nostrils lined with sebaceous and sweat glands and many hair follicles The rest of the nasal cavity is lined with 2 types of mucous membranes 1. Olfactory mucosa Lines the superior nasal cavity Contains smell receptors Vibrissae hairs that filter coarse particles (dust, pollen) from inspired air Note: there is a difference between mucous and mucus!!!

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Nasal Cavity 2. Respiratory mucosa Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium Mucous and serous secretions contain lysozyme and defensins Cilia move contaminated mucus posteriorly to throat Inspired air is warmed by networks of capillaries and veins Sensory nerve endings triggers sneezing

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.3c Sphenoid sinus Frontal sinus Nasal meatuses (superior, middle, and inferior) Nasopharynx Uvula Palatine tonsil Isthmus of the fauces Posterior nasal aperture Opening of pharyngotympanic tube Pharyngeal tonsil Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Vocal fold Esophagus (c) Illustration Nasal conchae (superior, middle and inferior) Nasal vestibule Nostril Nasal cavity Hard palate Soft palate Tongue Lingual tonsil Epiglottis Hyoid bone Larynx Thyroid cartilage Vestibular fold Cricoid cartilage Thyroid gland Trachea Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Nasal Cavity Superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae Protrude from the lateral walls Increase mucosal area Enhance air turbulence  This air turbulence helps clean, moisten and warm incoming air before it reaches the throat.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Functions of the Nasal Mucosa and Conchae During inhalation, the conchae and nasal mucosa Filter, heat, and moisten air During exhalation these structures Reclaim heat and moisture Bat in the Cave Cam

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Paranasal Sinuses In frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and maxillary bones What functions do the sinuses perform? Lighten the skull and help to warm and moisten the air

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Pharynx = Throat Muscular tube that connects to the Nasal cavity and mouth superiorly Larynx and esophagus inferiorly Divided into 3 regions Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.3b Pharynx Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx (b) Regions of the pharynx

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Nasopharynx Air passageway only located posterior to the nasal cavity Soft palate and uvula close nasopharynx during swallowing Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) on posterior wall Pharyngotympanic (auditory) tubes open into the lateral walls

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Oropharynx Passageway for food and air from the level of the soft palate to the epiglottis Lining of stratified squamous epithelium Isthmus of the fauces: opening to the oral cavity Palatine tonsils in the lateral walls of fauces Lingual tonsil on the posterior surface of the tongue

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Laryngopharynx Passageway for food and air Posterior to the upright epiglottis Extends to the larynx, where it is also continuous with the esophagus

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.3c Sphenoid sinus Frontal sinus Nasal meatuses (superior, middle, and inferior) Nasopharynx Uvula Palatine tonsil Isthmus of the fauces Posterior nasal aperture Opening of pharyngotympanic tube Pharyngeal tonsil Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Vocal fold Esophagus (c) Illustration Nasal conchae (superior, middle and inferior) Nasal vestibule Nostril Nasal cavity Hard palate Soft palate Tongue Lingual tonsil Epiglottis Hyoid bone Larynx Thyroid cartilage Vestibular fold Cricoid cartilage Thyroid gland Trachea Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. And Breath…..

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Larynx Attaches to the hyoid bone and opens into the laryngopharynx Continuous with the trachea Functions 1.Provides a patent airway 2.Routes air and food into proper channels 3.Voice production

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Larynx Cartilages of the larynx Hyaline cartilage except for the epiglottis Thyroid cartilage with laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple) Ring-shaped cricoid cartilage Paired arytenoid, cuneiform, and corniculate cartilages Epiglottis: elastic cartilage; covers the laryngeal inlet during swallowing

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.4a Body of hyoid bone Epiglottis Cricoid cartilage Tracheal cartilages Thyroid cartilage Laryngeal prominence (Adam’s apple) Cricothyroid ligament Cricotracheal ligament (a) Anterior superficial view Thyrohyoid membrane

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.4b Epiglottis Body of hyoid bone Thyrohyoid membrane Vestibular fold (false vocal cord) Vocal fold (true vocal cord) Cricothyroid ligament Cricotracheal ligament Fatty pad Thyroid cartilage Cuneiform cartilage Corniculate cartilage Arytenoid cartilage Cricoid cartilage Tracheal cartilages Arytenoid muscles (b) Sagittal view; anterior surface to the right Thyrohyoid membrane

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Larynx Vocal ligaments Attach the arytenoid cartilages to the thyroid cartilage Contain elastic fibers Form core of vocal folds (true vocal cords) Opening between them is the glottis Folds vibrate to produce sound as air rushes up from the lungs

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Larynx Vestibular folds (false vocal cords) Superior to the vocal folds No part in sound production Help to close the glottis during swallowing

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.5 (a) Vocal folds in closed position; closed glottis (b) Vocal folds in open position; open glottis Base of tongue Epiglottis Vestibular fold (false vocal cord) Vocal fold (true vocal cord) Glottis Inner lining of trachea Cuneiform cartilage Corniculate cartilage

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Voice Production Speech: intermittent release of expired air while opening and closing the glottis Pitch is determined by the length and tension of the vocal cords Loudness depends upon the force of air Chambers of pharynx, oral, nasal, and sinus cavities amplify and enhance sound quality Sound is “shaped” into language by muscles of the pharynx, tongue, soft palate, and lips The Larynx at Work

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Larynx Vocal folds may act as a sphincter to prevent air passage Example: Valsalva’s maneuver Glottis closes to prevent exhalation Abdominal muscles contract Intra-abdominal pressure rises Helps to empty the rectum or stabilizes the trunk during heavy lifting

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Trachea Windpipe: extends from the larynx into the mediastinum Wall composed of three layers 1.Mucosa: ciliated pseudostratified epithelium with goblet cells 2.Submucosa: connective tissue with seromucous glands 3.Adventitia: outermost layer made of connective tissue that encases the C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Trachea Trachealis muscle Connects posterior parts of cartilage rings Contracts during coughing to expel mucus Carina Last tracheal cartilage Point where trachea branches into two bronchi

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.6a (a) Cross section of the trachea and esophagus Hyaline cartilage Submucosa Mucosa Seromucous gland in submucosa Posterior Lumen of trachea Anterior Esophagus Trachealis muscle Adventitia

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Bronchi and Subdivisions Branch off the trachea into the rt. and lt. primary bronchi Air passages branch repeatedly Branching pattern called the bronchial tree

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Conducting Zone Structures Nose  Pharynx  Larynx  Trachea  right and left main (primary) bronchi Right main bronchus is wider, shorter, and more vertical than the left = choking hazard Each main bronchus branches into lobar (secondary) bronchi (three right, two left) Each lobar bronchus supplies one lobe

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Conducting Zone Structures Each lobar bronchus branches into segmental (tertiary) bronchi Segmental bronchi divide repeatedly Bronchioles are less than 1 mm in diameter Terminal bronchioles are the smallest, less than 0.5 mm diameter

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.7 Trachea Superior lobe of right lung Middle lobe of right lung Inferior lobe of right lung Superior lobe of left lung Left main (primary) bronchus Lobar (secondary) bronchus Segmental (tertiary) bronchus Inferior lobe of left lung

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Conducting Zone Structures From bronchi through bronchioles, structural changes occur Cartilage rings give way to plates; cartilage is absent from bronchioles cilia and goblet (mucus producing) cells become sparse Amount of smooth muscle increases

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Respiratory Zone This zone includes the bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs (clusters of alveoli) ~300 million alveoli account for most of the lungs’ volume and are the main site for gas exchange

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.8a (a) Alveolar duct Alveoli Alveolar sac Respiratory bronchioles Terminal bronchiole

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Respiratory Membrane of Alveoli Extremely thin air-blood barrier that has are on one side and blood on the other Alveolar walls Single layer of type I and type II cells surrounded by a flimsy basement membrane and covered in a cobweb of capillaries Scattered type II cells secrete surfactant and antimicrobial proteins

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.9a Elastic fibers (a) Diagrammatic view of capillary-alveoli relationships Smooth muscle Alveolus Capillaries Terminal bronchiole Respiratory bronchiole

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.9b

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Alveoli Surrounded by fine elastic fibers Contain open pores that Connect adjacent alveoli Allow air pressure throughout the lung to be equalized House alveolar macrophages that keep alveolar surfaces sterile Fun Fact: we swallow over 2 million old and dead macrophages per hour!!!!

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.9c Capillary Type II (surfactant- secreting) cell Type I cell of alveolar wall Endothelial cell nucleus Macrophage Alveoli (gas-filled air spaces) Red blood cell in capillary Alveolar pores Capillary endothelium Fused basement membranes of the alveolar epithelium and the capillary endothelium Alveolar epithelium Respiratory membrane Red blood cell O2O2 Alveolus CO 2 Capillary Alveolus Nucleus of type I (squamous epithelial) cell (c) Detailed anatomy of the respiratory membrane

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Lungs Occupy all of the thoracic cavity except the mediastinum Costal surface: anterior, lateral, and posterior surfaces Apex: superior tip Base: inferior surface that rests on the diaphragm

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Lungs Right lung has 3 lobes separated by oblique and horizontal fissures Left lung is smaller, separated into 2 lobes by an oblique fissure Cardiac notch of left lung: concavity that accommodates the heart

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.10a Trachea Apex of lung Thymus Right superior lobe Horizontal fissure Right middle lobe Oblique fissure Right inferior lobe Heart (in mediastinum) Diaphragm Base of lung Left superior lobe Cardiac notch Oblique fissure Left inferior lobe Lung Pleural cavity Parietal pleura Rib Intercostal muscle Visceral pleura (a) Anterior view. The lungs flank mediastinal structures laterally.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure Right superior lobe (3 segments) Right middle lobe (2 segments) Right inferior lobe (5 segments) Left superior lobe (4 segments) Left inferior lobe (5 segments) Right lungLeft lung

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Blood Supply Pulmonary circulation (low pressure, high volume) Pulmonary arteries deliver systemic venous blood Branch profusely, along with bronchi Feed into the pulmonary capillary networks Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from respiratory zones to the heart

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Blood Supply Systemic circulation (high pressure, low volume) Bronchial arteries provide oxygenated blood to lung tissue Arise from aorta and enter the lungs Supply all lung tissue except the alveoli Bronchial veins anastomose with pulmonary veins Pulmonary veins carry most venous blood back to the heart

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Pleurae Thin, double-layered membrane Parietal pleura on thoracic wall and superior face of diaphragm Visceral pleura on external lung surface Pleural fluid fills the slit-like pleural cavity Provides lubrication and surface tension See Visual Aid

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 22.10c Esophagus (in mediastinum) Right lung Parietal pleura Visceral pleura Pleural cavity Pericardial membranes Sternum Anterior Posterior Root of lung at hilum Left lung Thoracic wall Pulmonary trunk Heart (in mediastinum) Anterior mediastinum (c) Transverse section through the thorax, viewed from above. Lungs, pleural membranes, and major organs in the mediastinum are shown. Left main bronchus Left pulmonary artery Left pulmonary vein Vertebra

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Mechanics of Breathing Under Pressure Under Pressure Pulmonary ventilation consists of two phases 1.Inspiration: air flow into the lungs 2.Expiration: air exits the lungs Average respiratory rate in an adult is breaths per minute

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity Atmospheric pressure (P atm ) Pressure exerted by the air surrounding the body 760 mm Hg at sea level Respiratory pressures are described relative to P atm Negative respiratory pressure is less than P atm Positive respiratory pressure is greater than P atm Zero respiratory pressure = P atm

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Intrapulmonary Pressure Intrapulmonary pressure (P pul ) Pressure in the alveoli Fluctuates with breathing Always eventually equalizes with P atm (0 respiratory pressure)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Intrapleural Pressure Intrapleural pressure (P ip ): Pressure in the pleural cavity Fluctuates with breathing Always a negative pressure

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Intrapleural Pressure Negative P ip is caused by opposing forces Two inward forces promote lung collapse Elastic recoil of lungs decreases lung size Surface tension of alveolar fluid reduces alveolar size One outward force tends to enlarge the lungs Elasticity of the chest wall pulls the thorax outward

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Pressure Relationships If P ip = P pul the lungs collapse The difference in these pressures = transpulmonary pressure Keeps the airways open The greater the transpulmonary pressure, the larger the lungs

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure Atmospheric pressure Intrapleural pressure 756 mm Hg (–4 mm Hg) Transpulmonary pressure 760 mm Hg –756 mm Hg = 4 mm Hg Thoracic wall Diaphragm Lung Intrapulmonary pressure 760 mm Hg (0 mm Hg) Parietal pleura Pleural cavity Visceral pleura

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Homeostatic Imbalance Atelectasis (lung collapse) is due to Plugged bronchioles  collapse of alveoli Wound that admits air into pleural cavity (pneumothorax)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Pulmonary Ventilation Inspiration and expiration Mechanical processes that depend on volume changes in the thoracic cavity Volume changes  pressure changes Pressure changes  gases flow to equalize pressure

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Boyle’s Law The relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas Pressure varies inversely with volume As we decrease volume, we increase pressure As we increase volume, we decrease pressure Who likes marshmallows?

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Inspiration An active process Inspiratory muscles contract Thoracic volume increases Lungs are stretched and intrapulmonary volume increases Intrapulmonary pressure drops (to  1 mm Hg) Air flows into the lungs, down its pressure gradient, until P pul = P atm

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Expiration Quiet expiration is normally a passive process Inspiratory muscles relax Thoracic cavity volume decreases Elastic lungs recoil and intrapulmonary volume decreases Intrapulmonary pressure increases (to +1 mm Hg) Air flows out of the lungs down its pressure gradient until pulmonary pressure (Ppul) = 0 Note: forced expiration is an active process: it uses abdominal and internal intercostal muscles

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Physical Factors Influencing Pulmonary Ventilation 3 factors hinder air passage and pulmonary ventilation 1.Airway resistance 2.Alveolar surface tension 3.Lung compliance

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Airway Resistance As airway resistance rises, breathing movements become more strenuous Severely constricted or obstructed bronchioles Can prevent life-sustaining ventilation Can occur during acute asthma attacks and stop ventilation Epinephrine dilates bronchioles and reduces air resistance As airway resistance rises, breathing movements become more strenuous Severely constricted or obstructed bronchioles Can prevent life-sustaining ventilation Can occur during acute asthma attacks and stop ventilation Epinephrine dilates bronchioles and reduces air resistance As airway resistance rises, breathing movements become more strenuous Severely constricted or obstructed bronchioles Can prevent life-sustaining ventilation Can occur during acute asthma attacks and stop ventilation Epinephrine dilates bronchioles and reduces air resistance

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Alveolar Surface Tension Surface tension Attracts liquid molecules to one another at a gas-liquid interface Resists any force that tends to increase the surface area of the liquid

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Alveolar Surface Tension Surfactant Detergent-like lipid and protein complex produced by type II alveolar cells Reduces surface tension of alveolar fluid and discourages alveolar collapse Insufficient quantity in premature infants causes infant respiratory distress syndrome Want to see a magic trick?

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lung Compliance A measure of the change in lung volume that occurs with a given change in transpulmonary pressure Normally high due to Elasticity of the lung tissue Alveolar surface tension

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Lung Compliance Diminished by Nonelastic scar tissue (fibrosis) Reduced production of surfactant Decreased flexibility of the thoracic cage

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Lung Compliance Homeostatic imbalances that reduce compliance Deformities of thorax Ossification of the costal cartilage Paralysis of intercostal muscles