United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Statistical Division Looking at employment from a gender perspective Angela Me Chief Social and Demographic Statistics UNECE Statistical Division

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Statistical Division Source: Labour Force Survey, spring 2005, Office for National Statistics, UK Understanding the Labour Markets – Example UK

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Statistical Division Source: Labour Force Survey, spring 2005, Office for National Statistics, UK Understanding the Labour Markets – Example UK

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Statistical Division Source: Labour Force Survey, spring 2005, Office for National Statistics, UK Women are more likely than men to leave employment when they have children, and remain out of the market to take care of their offspring.

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Statistical Division Understanding the Labour Markets – Example Germany

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Statistical Division Source: A pilot project on the demography of small and medium sized enterprises (DOSME) for Central European countries (CECs)

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 7 Three-Year Survival Rate of New Businesses from 1998, by Sex of Entrepreneur (%)

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 8

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 9 Informal Employment What does “informal” mean?  The ‘informal economy’ refers to “all economic activities by workers and economic units that are not covered or insufficiently covered by formal arrangements”  Informal sector enterprises: Unincorporated enterprises: enterprises owned by individuals or households that are not constituted as separated legal entities independently of their owners, and for which no complete accounts are available that would permit a financial separation of the production activities of the enterprise from the other activities of its owner Size is below a certain threshold (five employees?) All or at least some of the goods or services produced are meant for sale or barter. Market orientation Defined by national circumstances Lack of registration Enterprises engaged in agriculture could be included but good to identified them separately from the non-agriculture enterprises

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 10 Informal Employment How“informal” relate to employment? There are two “informal” concepts that affect employment: Employment in the informal sector Informal employment

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 11 Informal Employment How does“informal” relate to employment? Employment in the informal sector all persons who, during a given reference period, were employed in at least one of the informal sector enterprise, irrespective of their status in employment and whether it was their main or a secondary job

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 12 Informal Employment How does“informal” relate to employment? Informal Employment Persons employed in the informal sector + persons employed in “informal” jobs. Informal jobs: non-standard, atypical, irregular, precarious, unprotected not covered by existing regulations (social protection, benefits The first criterion is based on the production unit, the second criterion on the type of job

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 13 Total Employment Employment in the informal sector Informal jobs in formal enterprises and households Informal employment Informal Employment

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 14 An example: Moldova 2003 Informal Employment

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 15 Informal employment and status in employment in Moldova 2003 Informal Employment

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 16 Gender and informal employment Informal employment comprises one half to three-quarters of non-agricultural employment in developing countries. Data disaggregated by informal and formal employment and employment status provide new information on the difference in the opportunities of women and men in the labor market:  Informal employment is generally a larger source of employment for women than formal employment  In most developing countries it is a larger source of employment for women than for men  Women are concentrated in the more precarious types of informal employment  Average earnings from these types of informal employment are low Informal Employment

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 17 Informal Employment

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 18 Informal Employment Share of formal and informal employment by sex and industry, Moldova 2003

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 19 Source: UNECE Gender Database

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 20 Gender Pay Gap What is it? Average difference between men and women earnings Average difference of what men and women take out of employment in monetary terms Gender Pay Gap

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 21 Gender Pay Gap What is it? (average men earnings – average women earnings)/average men earnings It is not the % of women earnings compared with men earnings (IT IS A GAP) Gender Pay Gap

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 22 Gender Pay Gap It is the average difference of what earnings? Yearly? Monthly? Hourly? It depends Gender Pay Gap

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 23 Gender Pay Gap It is the average difference of what earnings? Only waged-employment? Include self-employment? It should include self-employment, but de- facto it rarely does Gender Pay Gap

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 24 Gender Pay Gap Why do we use it? What is that we are trying to measure? Gender Pay Gap

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 25 What is that we are trying to measure? Discrimination in employment? Segregation in the labour market? No, Gender Pay Gap is a simple general aggregated measure of different participation in employment Gender Pay Gap

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 26 What is that we are trying to measure? GPG is like life expectancy, it is an outcome indicator and does not explain why the difference exist Gender Pay Gap

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 27 What is that we are trying to measure? Some people criticize GPG because they say that “the difference in earnings does not reveal a discrimination, GPS is due to the fact that women work less hours than men” GPG does not measure discrimination, it only reveals that there is a different out-take between women and men in employment other studies related for example to segregation, participation, and discrimination can explain this difference GPG does not measure if women and men have the same earnings for the same job Gender Pay Gap

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 28 What is that we are trying to measure? There are attempts to “adjust” GPG to better measure discrimination taking the average difference by occupation for example this reduces the GPG, but an “adjusted” GPG will never measure only discrimination Gender Pay Gap

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 29 What is that we are trying to measure? GPG based on hourly earnings eliminates the effect of part-time jobs for example Is this useful? It depends….. Gender Pay Gap

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 30 Segregation Horizontal Segregation There is no hierarchical order in the different categories Vertical Segregation There is a hierarchical order (salary, power, prestige, …) Inequality

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Statistical Division Understanding the Labour Markets – Example Norway, 2004 Graph 1: Percentage of women and men among managers Graph 2: Percentage of women and men among persons employed in the public sector Graph 3: Percentage of women and men among managers in the public and private sectors Graph 4: Percentage of female employees in managerial positions in the public and private sectors WomenMen Source: Women and Men in Norway, Statistics Norway, 2006

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 32 Relevance for SPECA countries  What indicators can measure the reconciliation between family and work? Employment by number of children Employment by age of youngest child Part-time job by number of children Relatively easy to accommodate in National Statistical Systems (NSS)  What indicators can analyze SME from a gender perspective? Definition of entrepreneur SME by sex of founder (owner or founder?) Motivations to start a business by sex of founder Success of business by sex of founder …………… More efforts needed from the NSS

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 33  What “informal” concept is important for gender analysis? Informal employment, persons working in informal sector? Persons in informal employment by sex, industry, status in employment, ……. More efforts needed from the NSS  What gender pay gap is relevant? Hourly, monthly, annually? Adjusted? What source? Relatively easy to accommodate in National Statistical Systems (NSS) Relevance for SPECA countries

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 34  What sort of vertical segregation is important to study? Percentage of managers to the total employed persons by sex, percentage of male and female among managers? Self-employed excluding agriculture? ……………. Relatively easy to accommodate in National Statistical Systems (NSS) Relevance for SPECA countries

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 35 A gender analysis of the labour market provides a better understanding of the labour market itself

- UNECE Statistical Division Slide 36 Thank you!