WHAT HAPPENS WHEN PIECES OF THE CRUST ARE FORCED TOGETHER ?

Extension and injection of mantle material into crust Extension and injection of mantle material into crust

Extension and injection of mantle material into crust Extension and injection of mantle material into crust Crustal Compression

Extension and injection of mantle material into crust Extension and injection of mantle material into crust Crustal Compression Consideration of Conservation of Mass: Mass leaving Mantle Injected to Crust. Mass leaving Mantle Injected to Crust. Unless Crustal material is returned mantle in equal volume the Earth will grow larger and larger, but also “hollower” and “hollower”. ?

CRUSTAL COMPRESSION

Crustal Thickening

CRUSTAL COMPRESSION Crustal Thickening

CRUSTAL COMPRESSION Crustal Thickening Crustal Faulting

Denser Crust to Mantle. Crustal Convergence and Compression. Heat Heat and Pressure

CRUSTAL ROCKS Block 1 Block 2 Two Origins of Crustal Rocks: 1)Continental Crust – Lower density as “floated” to outside of Earth. 2)Oceanic Crust – Higher density as origin deeper in the mantle. Continental Crust Continental Crust Oceanic Crust

CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES Two types of crustal rocks, thus three possible types of convergence: 1. Oceanic vs. Continental: e.g. Western South America

CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES Two types of crustal rocks, thus three possible types of convergence: 1. Oceanic vs. Continental: e.g. Western South America 2. Oceanic vs. Oceanic: e.g. Japanese Islands

CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES Two types of crustal rocks, thus three possible types of convergence: 1. Oceanic vs. Continental: e.g. Western South America 2. Oceanic vs. Oceanic: e.g. Japanese Islands 3. Continental vs. Continental: e.g. Himalayas

1. GENERAL SETTING

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Mid- Atlantic Ridge

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Mid- Atlantic Ridge

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate African Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate African Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge East Pacific Rise African Plate

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Nazca Plate Pacific Plate African Plate

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Nazca Plate Pacific Plate African Plate

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America South American Plate Mid- Atlantic Ridge East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Nazca Plate Pacific Plate African Plate CONVERGENCE AND CRUSTAL COMPRESSION

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Crustal Thickening

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands Compressional Faulting

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands More dense oceanic crust Sub-ducted beneath South America

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands Deep ocean trench

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands Shallow Earthquakes Deep Earthquakes Heat and pressure cause melting

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands Heat and pressure cause melting Ocean sediments Andes

WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA Pacific OceanAtlantic OceanSouth America Nazca Plate South American Plate African Plate Pacific Plate East Pacific Rise Mid- Atlantic Ridge Mato Grosso Brazilian Highlands Guiana Highlands Heat and pressure cause melting Andes Active Volcanoes

03.05.b1

03.09.a1

2. JAPANESE ISLANDS GENERAL SETTING

Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS

Eurasia Moved from North Atlantic Mid-ocean Ridge

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan JAPANESE ISLANDS CONVERGENCE AND CRUSTAL COMPRESSION

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan The Pacific Plate composed entirely of denser oceanic crust, is subducted beneath the oceanic fringe of the dominantly continental Eurasian Plate. JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Ocean trench JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Heat and Pressure cause melting JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Heat and Pressure cause melting Shallow and deep earthquakes JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Mountain building breaking ocean surface as a series of islands or “island arcs”. JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Compressional faulting permits “recycled” oceanic crust to rise to the surface, producing active volcanoes. JAPANESE ISLANDS

Island Arcs Ocean Trenches

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan As the Pacific plate is subducted it tends to “roll- back” southeastwards, pulling the Japanese Islands further off of Asia. “Push” “Pull” JAPANESE ISLANDS

East Pacific Rise Nazca Plate Pacific Plate Eurasian Plate Pacific OceanAsiaSea of Japan Motion of Japanese islands away from Asia causes split of crust and “back arc spreading” beneath the sea of Japan. JAPANESE ISLANDS

03.00.a1e

Source: R.A. Kerr., 2011 Science, 332, p.911

Displacement during Earthquake March Source: Simons et al., 2011 Science Express

CREDIT: ADAPTED FROM THE EARTHQUAKE RESEARCH COMMITTEE, NATIONAL SEISMIC HAZARD MAPS FOR JAPAN (2010), HEADQUARTERS FOR EARTHQUAKE RESEARCH PROMOTION

3. HIMALAYA GENERAL SETTING

250 million years ago Eurasia Indian sub- continent

EARLY DIVERGENCE AND CRUSTAL EXTENSION AfricaIndia HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Africa and India part of the same continental mass, Gondwanaland, also comprised of present day, South Africa, Australia and Antarctica.

AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Eurasia (Europe and Asia), part of northern continental landmass including present day North America.

AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Sea of Tethys Tethys Plate

AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago CONVERGENCE (Ocean vs Continent) AND CRUSTAL COMPRESSION

AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Tethys Ocean crust subducted beneath Eurasian continent

AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Ocean trench

AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Melting under Heat and pressure

AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Earthquakes

AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Mountain building

AfricaIndia Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 250 million years ago Volcanoes

AfricaIndiaEurasiaSea of Tethys Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate Indian Ocean Indo-Australian Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 150 million years ago

AfricaIndiaEurasiaSea of Tethys Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate Indian Ocean Indo-Australian Plate HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS 75 million years ago

AfricaIndiaEurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate African Plate Indian Ocean Indo-Australian Plate Himalaya Mountains HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS Present

Wilhan and Gaur, Buildings as weapons of mass destruction. SCIENCE VOL 341 9, p

03.00.a1d INDUS GANGES INDIA PAKISTAN CHINA BANGLADESH HIMALAYA TIBET PLATEAU

SICHUAN EARTHQUAKE CHINA, 2008.

WORLD’S 100 HIGHEST MOUNTAINS RANK ELEVATION (m) Himalaya and Associated Ranges Andes

03.02.b1 VOLCANOES WHY NO VOLCANOES?

India Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate Indian Ocean Indo-Australian Plate Himalaya Mountains WHAT’S HAPPENING NOW? Present Tibetan Plateau

India Eurasia Eurasian Plate Tethys Plate Indian Ocean Indo-Australian Plate Himalaya Mountains WHAT’S HAPPENING NOW? Present Tibetan Plateau ?

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES

1. Western South America

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES 2. Japanese Islands

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES 3. Himalaya

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES

1. Western South America

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES 2. Japanese Islands

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES 3. Himalaya