Fragmentation of Muslim world European intervention

French occupation of Egypt 19th c. European powers take effective control of much of Muslim world

Attempts at reform by Muslim states 1826 Ottoman sultan Mahmut II (r ) destroys janissaries, suppresses Bektashi Sufi Order 1839 Mahmut II issues first of Tanzimat (re-organisation) decrees Era of Tanzimat

Tanzimat… Incl. European-style education and legal systems Centralisation of power Opposed by bureaucrats, religious scholars, foreign powers and domestic Christians CapitulationsAbdulaziz (r )

Sunni reformers: Rejection of customary practices Return to Qur’an and hadith as only sources of Islamic practice, mediated through ijtihad Translations of the Qur’an

Muhammad ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab (1702/3-91/2) Muwahhidun (Unitarians)/Wahhabis 1744 Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab allies with Muhammad ibn Sa‘ud of Dir‘iya 1810 Allies complete conquest of most of Arabia Map Link: First Saudi State: < First_Saudi_State_Big.png/800px-First_Saudi_State_Big.pngFirst_Saudi_State_Big.png/800px-First_Saudi_State_Big.png>

1893 ‘Abd al-Rahman ibn Faysal of Sa‘udi family (d. 1928) takes refuge in Kuwait Wahhabi combination of reform and force Shrine of al-Husayn at Karbala

Twelver Shi‘ism: Late 18th c. Usulis dominate religious elite Guidance from Hidden Imam given to mujtahids (qualified scholars), incl. ayatollahs (“signs of God”) Religious elite tightening grip on religious interpretation

18th c. Establishment of modern practices marking ‘Ashura’ (10th Muharram), commemorating martyrdom of al-Husayn in 680 ta‘ziye

Nizaris: 1841 Nizari Imam (Aga Khan), after conflict with Qajar shah of Persia, flees to Afghanistan 1848 Imam moves to Bombay (Mumbai), recognised as leader by most Khojas of S. Asia

May 1844 Sayyid ‘Ali Muhammad claims to be the Bab (gate) to the 12th Imam 1848 The Bab is imprisoned. Claims to be the 12th Imam 8th/9th July 1850 The Bab is executed. Persecution of Babis follows

1853 Mirza Husayn ‘Ali (Baha’u’llah [“Glory of God,” ]) begins to have visions while in prison Flees to Baghdad, eventually exiled to Edirne, then ‘Akko Meanwhile, gathers followers

1892 Death of Baha’u’llah. Leadership passes to family, then in 1957 to ruling council 1963 Election of the first members of the Universal House of Justice

Major Baha’i principles: 1. Oneness of God Same being worshipped by other faiths 2. Oneness of humanity Rejection of racism/sexism 3. Oneness of religion Progressive revelation Emphasis on spiritual advancement and unity

Islamic reform: At one end – Sunni, scripture-based movement At other end – Baha’i faith, not even Islamic

‘Abd al-Rahman ibn al-Hasan al-Jabarti. From prominent family Historian best known for ‘Aja‘ib al-Athar fi’l-Tarajim wa’l-Akhbar, originally meant as biographical dictionary, but he turned it into a history covering Text here is from Muzhir al-Taqdis bi-Dhahab Dawlat al-Faransis, history of French occupation of Egypt, finished 1801 or 1802 Al-Jabarti /6)