Historical Aspect Social Political Economic 18th Century Trend Secularism and Religious Pluralism Scientific View of Universe; Natural Philosophy Social Centralization Monarch with centralized state; Constitutional Government Political Towns and cities; Economic Freedom Overseas Empire; Mercantilism; Science and Material Progress Economic

Welfare state; labor movement; modern class system 19th Century Trend Historical Aspect Welfare state; labor movement; modern class system Social Nation States; large electorates; political parties; centralized bureaucracies Political Interdependence; large scale corporate structures; military establishment Economic

Chapter 23

Population Trends and Migration The proportion of Europeans in the world’s total population was greater than ever before or since 1900 Trends show that in the developed world population growth is slow/stable whereas in the undeveloped world it is rapidly growing Emancipation, advanced transportation, cheap land, and general opportunity led to mass migration from Europe elsewhere

The Second Industrial Revolution The European Continent quickly caught up with British industry Industrialization was first defined by textiles, steam and iron; The second industrial revolution was defined by steel, chemicals, electricity and petroleum Henry Bessemer; Solvay process of alkali production; electricity – most versatile and transportable source of energy; Gottlieb Daimler – internal combustion engine; Henry Ford – affordable car led to unlimited mobility and increased the use of oil Economic Difficulties - grave pressure on European agriculture because of foreign competition made possible by refrigerated ships and cheap transportation costs General standard of living rose in Europe due to better wages, cheaper products, urbanization, and increased consumer goods (rise of mass marketing)

The Middle Class Ascendancy The middle class was not revolutionary after 1848 – protect private property Social distinctions within the middle class Owners and managers of great banks and businesses (WH Smith; Krupp) Entrepreneurs and professionals Shopkeepers and school teachers Petite bourgeoisie – “white collar workers” – bureaucrats The middle class drove consumerism; established societies new values and goals

Late 19th Century Urban Life Cities became the center of commerce, trade, government, and leisure activities Urban renewal – rebuilding of cities Suburbs Public Health became a major government interest – sanitation and housing reform; bacterial theory of disease – Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch and Joseph Lister

Varieties of Late 19th Century Women’s Experience Women remained economically dependant and legally inferior No property rights once married; almost impossible to divorce; no control over sexual or reproductive rights; lack of education Availability of new jobs – low skill; no chance of advancement; low pay; exploitation Withdraw from labor force – employers looked for young unmarried women; smaller families and longer living husbands allowed for women to stay at home

Middle class women – the cult of domesticity Poverty and Prostitution – working class women were exploited; poor women used prostitution as a means to an end Middle class women – the cult of domesticity Trophy wife Religious and charitable activities Sexuality and family size – size limited by affordability and dangers of child birth The rise of political feminism – obstacles to achieving equality – division over goals and tactics Votes for women in Britain – most advanced women’s movement – 1918; France – after World War II; Germany – 1919

Jewish Emancipation In Western Europe the Jews found equal or nearly equal citizenship; much lesser extent in Eastern Europe; none in Russia – pogroms were encouraged At the end of the 19th century organized anti-Semitism existed all throughout Europe

Labor, socialism and politics to World War I Trade Unionism – legal by the end of the century; skilled vs. unskilled; unions allowed workers a collective form of association to confront economic difficulties and improve security Democracy and Political Parties Major European powers adopted broad based electoral systems in the late 19th century; no reform in Russia Socialists – reform or revolution Karl Marx and the First International – connected socialists on the continent; Marxism was dominant force – scientific socialism

Great Britain and Early Welfare Programs The Fabian Society – work through government to promote socialist ideas and programs; led by Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Graham Wallas; H.G. Wells and George Bernard Shaw Labour Party formed which forces Liberal Party to adopt pro-union ideas National Insurance Act of 1911 – provides employment benefits and health care Parliament Act of 1911 – House of Commons can override veto of House of Lords France: Opportunism rejected – Second International; opportunism – should socialists serve in government cabinet; embraced anarchism and strikes

Germany: Social Democrats and Revisionism German Social Democratic Party (SPD) – policy of hostility to non-socialist government Bismarck tries to destroy socialism – ends up creating modern welfare state to appease workers Erfurt Program – continued policy of hostility by SPD; believed in the eventual collapse of capitalism and the need of workers to control the means of production Revisionism – Edward Bernstein believed that Marx was wrong and socialists should follow evolutionary socialism towards social democracy

Russia: Industrial Development and the Birth of Bolshevism Industrialization, led by Alexander III and Nicholas II, leads to political and social turmoil; kulaks and zemtvos Lenin’s early thought and career Was a Marxist – believed revolution was the only possible was to change in illiberal Russia Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov – rejected view of inevitable revolution and view of social democracy; believed in a small, professional, non-democratic revolutionary party that would lead two revolutions – peasants and workers

Revolution of 1905 – in reaction to the embarrassing Russian defeat in the Russo-Japanese War of 1905 and because of poor working conditions Russians poured out into the streets to protest and workers went out on strike Bloody Sunday – troops massacre workers during a protest in St. Petersburg October Manifesto – Nicholas promised “ freedom of person, conscience, speech, assembly, and union.”; He also agreed to summon the Duma – elected national assembly Russian government led by P.A. Stolypin until his assassination in 1911