Some important questions Why does a top professional footballer earn so much more than a professor? Why does an unskilled worker in the EU earn more than an unskilled worker in India? Why do market economies not manage to provide jobs for all their citizens who want to work? Why are different methods of production used in different countries? See the introduction to Chapter 10 in the main text.

The demand for labour Derived demand the demand for a factor of production is derived from the demand for the output produced by that factor. See the introduction to Chapter 10 in the main text.

Demand for factors in the long run The optimum mix of capital and labour depends on the relative prices of these factors. This helps to explain why more labour-intensive means of production are used in some countries where labour is relatively abundant. A change in the price of one factor will have both output and substitution affects. A rise in the wage rate leads to substitution towards more capital-intensive techniques but also leads to lower total output. See Section 10-1 in the main text.

The demand for labour in the short run The marginal value product of labour is the revenue obtained by selling the output produced by an extra worker MVPL Employment Wage, MVPL Under perfect competition, with diminishing marginal productivity: the firm maximises profit when the marginal cost of employing an extra worker equals the MVPL. W0 See Section 10-2 in the main text, and Figure 10-2.

The demand for labour in the short run W0 MVPL Employment Wage, MVPL …this occurs at E where wage = MVPL. E L* Employment is L*. Below L*, extra employment adds more to revenue than to labour costs. Above L*, the reverse is so. This decision is consistent with the MR = SMC rule for maximising profit under perfect competition. See Section 10-2 in the main text, and Figure 10-2.

Monopoly and monopsony power in the labour market A firm may have MONOPOLY power in its output market facing a downward-sloping demand curve so the marginal revenue (MRPL) received from expanding output is less than the MVPL as the firm must reduce price to sell more. A firm may face MONOPSONY power in its input market facing an upward-sloping supply curve for inputs so the marginal cost of labour rises with employment. See Section 10-2 in the main text.

Monopoly and monopsony power (2) MVPL L1 Employment £ MRPL L3 Under perfect competition, a firm sets MVPL = W0 and employs L1 workers. Facing a downward- sloping demand curve for its product, the firm sets MRPL = W0 and employs L3 workers. See Section 10-2 in the main text, and Figure 10-3.

Monopoly and monopsony power (3) £ A monopsonist recognises that additional employment bids up wages for existing workers, so MCL shows the marginal cost of an extra worker. MCL Facing a given goods price, the monopsonist sets MCL = MVPL and employs L2 workers. L2 W0 See Section 10-2 in the main text, and Figure 10-3. MRPL MVPL L3 L1 Employment

Monopoly and monopsony power (4) £ For a monopsonist who also faces a downward- sloping demand curve for the product, MCL is set equal to MRPL to employ L4 workers. L4 MCL L2 W0 So monopoly and monopsony power both tend to reduce the firm’s demand for labour. See Section 10-2 in the main text, and Figure 10-3. MRPL MVPL L3 L1 Employment

The supply of labour The LABOUR FORCE Labour supply all individuals in work or seeking employment. Labour supply for an individual, the decision on how many hours to offer to work depends on the real wage an individual’s attitude towards leisure and income determines if more or less hours of work are supplied at a higher real wage rate. See Section 10-4 in the main text.

The individual’s supply curve of labour Hours of work supplied Real wage SS1 For the labour supply curve SS1, an increase in the real wage induces higher labour supply. SS2 Whereas for SS2, there comes a point where a higher wage induces less hours of work to be supplied: labour supply is backward-bending. See Section 10-4 in the main text, and Figure 10-5.

Labour supply in aggregate If we consider the economy as a whole, or an industry a higher real wage rate also encourages a higher participation rate so labour supply is likely to be upward-sloping. See Section 10-4 in the main text.

Labour market equilibrium for an industry The industry supply curve SLSL slopes up higher wages are needed to attract workers into the industry For a given output demand curve, industry demand for labour slopes down Equilibrium is W0, L0. Quantity of labour Wage DL SL W0 L0 See Section 10-5 in the main text, and Figure 10-7.

A shift in product demand Quantity of labour Wage DL SL W0 L0 Beginning in equilibrium, a fall in demand for the product also shifts the derived demand for labour to D'L D'L The new equilibrium is at W1, L1. L1 W1 See Section 10-5 in the main text, and Figure 10-7.

A change in wages in another industry so industry supply shifts to the left – S'L Quantity of labour Wage DL SL W0 L0 Again starting in equilibrium, an increase in wages in another industry attracts labour, The new equilibrium is at W2, L2. L2 W2 See Section 10-5 in the main text, and Figure 10-7.

Transfer earnings and economic rent the minimum payments required to induce a factor of production to work in a particular job. Economic rent the extra payment a factor receives over and above the transfer earnings needed to induce the factor to supply its services in that use. See Section 10-6 in the main text.

Transfer earnings and economic rent (2) In labour market equilibrium at W0, L0, D if workers were paid only the transfer earnings, the industry would need only pay AEL0 in wages. SS Wage E W0 But if all workers must be paid the highest wage needed to attract the marginal worker into the industry (W0), then workers as a whole derive economic rent of 0AEW0. D See Section 1206 in the main text, and Figure 10-8. A A L0 Quantity