The War to End War

 Serb patriot killed heir to the Austria- Hungary throne ◦ Germany and Austria-Hungary sent message to Serbia ◦ Serbia backed by Russia set eyes on Germany ◦ Germany attacked France through Belgium ◦ Great Britain joined with France Archduke Francis Ferdinand Gavrilo Princip

 Both central and allied powers wanted US help ◦ Allies – German atrocities ◦ Central – relied on German-Americans  Americans anti-German ◦ Against Kaiser Wilhelm II

 In recession before WWI  British and French need for product  J.P Morgan loaned 2.3 billion  Central powers complained ◦ Did not violate neutrality laws ◦ Could still trade with US ◦ British blockade

 1915 –Germany announces submarine war area around British isles ◦ U-boats ◦ 90 ships sunk in first few months  “try not to sink neutral ships”

 Passenger ship  Sank of Ireland on May 7, 1915  1,198 killed (128 Americans)  Germans argued ship carried ammunition

 Warning to Germany  Agreed in 1915 to not sink unarmed ships without warning  Violated with sinking of Sussex in 1916  Sussex ultimatum ◦ Germany would not attack passenger ships  Accepted by Wilson ◦ U.S. would help to remove British blockade  Not agreed upon

 Wilson: “He Kept us Out of War”  Roosevelt refused to run as a progressive  Republican’s nominate Hughes ◦ Pro-business; attacked Wilson’s foreign policy

 January 22, 1917  Neutral rights  “Peace without victory”

 January 31, 1917 – unrestricted submarine warfare  Wilson still wanted peace  March 1, Zimmerman note ◦ German-Mexican alliance ◦ Recovery of TX, NM, and AZ  4 unarmed US ships sunk in March

 Declared on April 6 th, 1917  “to make the world safe for democracy”

 Appeal for peace  The first 5 points and their effects were: ◦ 1. A proposal to abolish secret treaties pleased liberals of all countries. ◦ 2. Freedom of the seas appealed to the Germans, as well as to Americans who distrusted British sea power. ◦ 3. A removal of economic barriers among nations was comforting to Germany, which feared postwar vengeance. ◦ 4. Reduction of armament burdens was gratifying to taxpayers. ◦ 5. An adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of both native people and the colonizers was reassuring to the anti-imperialists.  The largest achievement, #14, foreshadowed the League of Nations - an international organization that Wilson dreamed would provide a system of collective security. 

 Created by George Creel  Mobilize people for war  “four minute men” – patriotic speeches  Posters, pamphlets, and movies

 8 million German-Americans  Rumors of spying and sabotage. ◦ German-Americans were tarred, feathered, and beaten. ◦ hatred of Germans and things related to Germany  The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 ◦ Socialist Eugene V. Debs and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) leader William D. Haywood were convicted under the Espionage Act.  At this time, nearly any criticism of the government could be censored and punished. ◦ Schenck v. United States (1919): freedom of speech could be revoked when such speech posed a danger to the nation.

 Civilian Council of National Defense ◦ to study problems of economic mobilization ◦ increased the size of the army ◦ created a shipbuilding program.  Fear of big government  War Industries Board ◦ impose some order on the economic confusion. ◦ disbanded after the end of the war.

 Unemployed males threatened with the draft  The IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) were victims of some of the worst working conditions in the country. ◦ At the end of the war, the AF of L's (American Federation of Labor) membership had more than doubled.  Wartime inflation threatened to eliminate wage gains and thousands of strikes resulted.  In 1919, the greatest strike in American history hit the steel industry. ◦ More than 250,000 steelworkers walked off their jobs ◦ companies brought in 30,000 African-Americans to keep the mills running. ◦ After several deadly confrontations, the strike collapsed, crippling the union movement for over 10 years.  Thousands of blacks were drawn to the North in wartime by the allure of war-industry employment. ◦ Deadly disputes between whites and blacks consequently erupted.

 In 1919, the greatest strike in American history hit the steel industry. ◦ More than 250,000 steelworkers walked off their jobs ◦ companies brought in 30,000 African-Americans to keep the mills running. ◦ After several deadly confrontations, the strike collapsed, crippling the union movement for over 10 years.

 National Woman's party protested the war.  National American Woman Suffrage Association, supported  Impressed by women's war work, President Wilson supported women suffrage.  In 1920, The 19 th Amendment was passed, giving all American women the right to vote.  Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act of 1921 ◦ providing federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care.

 Wheatless Wednesdays  Meatless Tuesdays  Alcohol manufacturing slowed  $21 billion raised

 Males  “Draft dodgers” and exemption  Key industries excluded  Patriotic Duty  4 million men raised  Women and African allowed to serve

 1917 Bolshevik Revolution ◦ Communist Russia toppled the tsar regime ◦ Pulled out of “Capitalistic” ◦ War now fought solely for democracy

 A year after Congress declared war, the first American troops reached France. ◦ used as replacements in the Allied armies ◦ deployed in quiet sectors with the British and French. ◦ Shipping shortages plagued the Allies.  American troops were also sent to Belgium, Italy, and Russia. ◦ Hoped to prevent Russian munitions from falling into the hands of the Germans. 

 Spring 1918 – Germans attack western front ◦ 500,000 German troops ◦ Marshal Foch (French commander in charge of allies) ◦ 30,000 Americans sent to French frontlines  First engagement of U.S. in Europe ◦ Halted German advance

 July 1918  Marked the beginning of a German withdrawal.  The Americans demanded a separate army; ◦ General John J. Pershing was assigned a front of 85 miles. ◦ Pershing's army undertook the Meuse-Argonne offensive from September 26 to November 11,  Cut the German railroad lines feeding the western front.  Inadequate training left 10% of the Americans involved in the battle injured or killed.  As German supplies ran low and as their allies began to desert them, defeat was in sight for Germany.

 In October of 1918, the Germans were ready for peace based on the Fourteen Points.  Surrendered on November 11, 1918  The United States' main contributions to the victory had been foodstuffs, munitions, credits, oil, and manpower. ◦ Only fought 2 major battles, at St. Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne. ◦ The prospect of endless U.S. troops, rather than America's actual military performance eventually demoralized the Germans. 

 January 18 th, 1919  The Big Four ◦ Wilson (1 st president to travel oversees) ◦ Orlando (Italy) ◦ Lloyd George (Britain) ◦ Clemenceau (France)  Wilson’s main goal: League of Nations ◦ World parliament ◦ Seats for all nations ◦ Controlled by major power

 France got the Security Treaty ◦ Both Britain and America pledged to come to its aid in the event of another German invasion.  Italy demanded Fiume, a valuable seaport inhabited by both Italians and Yugoslavs. ◦ The seaport went to Yugoslavia after Wilson's insisting.  Japan demanded China's Shandong Peninsula and the German islands of the Pacific, which it had seized during the war. ◦ After Japan threatened to walk out, Wilson accepted a compromise in which Japan kept Germany's economic holdings in Shandong and pledged to return the peninsula to China at a later date.

 The Treaty of Versailles was forced upon the Germans in June ◦ Outraged with the treaty, noticing that most of the Fourteen Points were left out.  Wilson, also not happy with the outcome of the treaty, was forced to compromise away some of his Fourteen Points in order to salvage the more precious League of Nations.

 Critics of the League of Nations came from all sides. Irish-Americans, isolationists, and principled liberals all denounced the League.  In an attempt to speed up the passing of the treaty in the Senate, President Wilson decided to travel the country  The speeches in the Midwest did not go as well as in the Rocky Mountain region and on the Pacific Coast.  On his return to Washington, Wilson suffered a stroke and suffered from physical and nervous exhaustion.

 Senator Lodge, a critic to the president, came up with fourteen reservations to the Treaty of Versailles. ◦ These safeguards reserved the rights of the U.S. under the Monroe Doctrine and the Constitution and otherwise sought to protect American sovereignty.  After the Senate rejected the Treaty twice, the Treaty of Versailles was defeated. ◦ The Lodge-Wilson personal feud, traditionalism, isolationism, disillusionment, and partisanship all contributed to the defeat of the treaty.

 Wilson proposed to settle the treaty issue in the upcoming presidential campaign of 1920 by appealing to the people for a "solemn referendum."  The Republicans chose Senator Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge ◦ The Republican platform appealed to both pro-League and anti-League sentiment in the party.  Democrats nominated pro-League Governor James. M. Cox as their presidential hopeful and chose Franklin D. Roosevelt as their vice- presidential nominee. ◦ Warren Harding won the election of Harding's victory lead to the death of the League of Nations.

What does this tell us about the League of Nations?

 The Treaty of Versailles was the only one of the four peace treaties not to succeed.  After the war, America did not embrace the role of global leader.  In the interests of its own security, the United States should have used its enormous strength to shape world-shaking events.  It instead permitted the world to drift towards yet another war.