THINK. CHANGE. DO KEY TERMS & DEFINITIONS  Theory  Theoretical Assumptions (incl. ontological, epistemological and axiological)  Paradigms  Models  Methodology  Methods UTS: Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC Professor of Public Communication

Uh oh … theory! Theory = “An organised set of concepts, explanations and principles of some aspect of human experience” (Littlejohn & Foss 2008, p. 14) A set of concepts used to define and/or explain some phenomenon (Silverman 2000) “Theory consists of plausible relationships produced among concepts and sets of concepts (Strauss & Corbin 1994, p. 278) “Theories are explanations of phenomena” (Balnaves, Donald & Shoesmith 2009, p. 278) 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Key terms Concept Explanation Principles Taxonomies Terms and definitions that classify and label variables being studied according to perceived patterns (eg. symmetric communication) Explanation The “logical force” behind a theory, answering the question “why?” Can be causal or practical Principles The final dimension of theories – guidelines that enable interpretation of an event and aid interpretation and decisions on how to act Taxonomies List of categories without explanation of how they relate (taxonomies generally fall short of theory as they lack explanation and principles) 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Key terms Ontology Branch of philosophy that studies the nature of existence Key questions: What is truth? Is there ‘one truth’ waiting to be discovered – or multiple truths (i.e. valid perspectives, views, beliefs)? What is reality? Scientific realism or social constructed – i.e. realist or relativist? Are humans agentic (pragmatist) or determined by external conditions (determinist) Is human behaviour mainly traits or states? 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Key terms Epistemology Branch of philosophy that studies how knowledge is created – how people know what they know “the nature and status of knowledge” (Silverman 2000) Key questions asked: Is knowledge immutable and absolute (universalist) or constructed through perceptions, experiences, etc (relativist) Can we be ‘objective’ or are we subjective – or intersubjective (sharing subjectivities)? Can we be independent in our assessments or interdependent? Does knowledge arise through rationalism, empiricism or constructivism? 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Key terms Axiology Branch of philosophy that studies values – what values guide or influence thinking and action and the implications of those values Can we be value free – or are we value-laden (i.e. biased) in various ways? Do we conduct value-conscious scholarship – or value-free scholarship? To what extent does the process of inquiry itself affect what is being seen? 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Positivist v Naturalistic/Interpretative Paradigms ASSUMPTION KEY QUESTIONS POSITIVIST PARADIGM INTERPRETATIVE PARADIGM Ontological Assumption What is the nature of reality? Singular (one reality) One truth Realist Multiple realities Multiple truths Relativist Epistemological Assumption What is the relationship of the researcher to that being researched? (How do we acquire knowledge?) Independent Objectivist Interdependent Subjectivist Constructionist (Constructionism denies any access to reality other than representations)1 Axiological Assumption What is the role of values in the research process? Value-free Unbiased Value-laden Biased Rhetorical Assumption What is the language used? Formal Impersonal Voice Informal Personal voice Based on Creswell, J. 1994 cited in Frey, et al. 2000, p. 18. (1) Grossberg, et al. 2006, p. 205. 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Positivist v Naturalistic/Interpretative Paradigms ASSUMPTION QUESTION POSITIVIST PARADIGM INTERPRETATIVE PARADIGM Methodological Assumption What is the process of inquiry or research? Deduction Search for cause an effect relationships between variables Static design Researcher controlled setting Quantitative methods Context-free generalisations Goals of explanation, prediction and control Induction Holistic understanding of patterns/behaviour Emergent design Natural setting Qualitative methods Context-bound findings Goals of understanding and social change Based on Creswell, J. 1994 cited in Frey, et al. 2000, p. 18. 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Types of theory Nomothetic theory Practical theory (ideographic) Seeks universal and general laws Method is (1) develop questions; (2) form hypotheses; (3) test hypotheses; (4) formulate answers (theory) Deductive Rationalist and empirical Practical theory (ideographic) Seeks to capture differences and diversity to provide understanding that helps people to weigh up alternatives Recognises knowledge is created by humans, it is created socially, is historically based, and is value laden Inductive Constructionist 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Nomothetic Ideographic/Practical Objective Scientific Empirical More quantitative Effectiveness in persuasion Systematic/logical Causal/linear The truth is out there Knowledge is discovered through observation Interpretive Humanist Contextual More qualitative Participation and negotiation Free human agency Non-linear, no sequence Truth lies within – we create our own truths Knowledge arises out of interaction between knower and known 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Theory and practice? “There is nothing so practical as a good theory” (Kurt Lewin 1951, p. 169) “Theory and practice vitally interact, and one renews the other” (Boyer 1990, p. 23) Theory and practice can and should be integrated, each informing the other 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Three Approaches to Scholarship Scientific The ‘natural sciences’ Informed by ‘The Enlightenment’ and Modernism – rationalist, empirical The “discovered world” – objective ‘truth’ is out there Socio-scientific Birth of the social sciences Uses elements of the scientific approach, but focuses on humans – particularly in a social setting How they behave in creating, exchanging and interpreting meaning Humanist Individual subjectivity, human interpretation “The discovering person” – ‘truth’ is constructed inside 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Some terms Paradigm A framework within which theories are formulated, a theoretical framework (eg. postmodernism, constructionism) From the Greek word paradeigma meaning a pattern As well as providing a clearly articulated and accepted framework for understanding reality, paradigms can be confining (Kuhn) 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Some terms Model Some such as Silverman (2000, p. 77) use ‘model’ in the same sense as paradigm for an “overall framework for looking at reality” A more common use is in referring to a set of procedures to follow,a mapping of an approach A practical demonstration or visualisation or a theory or concept “An abstract representation of a process, a description of its structure or function” (Trenholm 2008, p. 23) Models are always incomplete because they are simplified representations of complex processes (Trenholm 2008, p 24) 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

Some terms Methodology Method The overall approach to studying research topics – often used in place of ‘method’ (see below). “Methodology is the ontological beliefs that give shape to the process of knowing (the science of method)” (Balnaves, Donald & Shoesmith 2009, p. 278) Usually considered to be quantitative or qualitative, or overall research approaches such as ethnographic Method A specific research technique – eg. experiments, surveys, interviews, case studies, observation, etc 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC

References Boyer, E. 1990, Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professoriate, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, Princeton, NJ. Grossberg, L. Wartella, E. Whitney, D. & Macgregor Wise, J. 2006, Media Making: Mass Media in a Popular Culture, 2nd edn, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. Frey, L. Botan, C. & Kreps, G. 2000, Investigating Communication: An Introduction to Research Methods, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights, MA. Lewin, K. 1951, Field Theory in Social Science: Selected Theoretical Papers, D. Cartwright (ed.), Harper & Row, New York. Littlejohn, S. & Foss, K. 2008, Theories of Human Communication, 9th edn, Thomson-Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. Silverman, D. 2000, Doing Qualitative Research, Sage, London. Strauss, A. & Corbin, J. 1994, ‘Grounded theory methodology: An overview’ in N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA, pp. 262-72. 57022 – Managing Communication Professor Jim Macnamara PhD, FPRIA, FAMI, CPM, FAMEC