VII Language Change

7.3 Morphological and syntactic change 7.1 Introduction All languages change through time, though they do so rather slowly. The changes can be found in the phonology, morphology, syntax, lexicon and semantic components of the grammar.   7.2 Sound change Sound changes tend to be systematic; it is possible to see a regular pattern of pronunciation changes throughout the history of the English language. 7.3 Morphological and syntactic change 7.3.1 Change in “agreement” rule Whan that Aprille with his showers sooth…. When that April with his showers sweet... In Modern English, April is replaced by the pronoun it, and his only refers to an animate masculine noun, thus revealing the change in “agreement” rule.

7.3.2 Change in negation rule I love thee not.---- I do not love you He saw you not.--- He did not see you. 7.3.3 Process of simplification There may be a loss of grammatical distinctions, through a process simplification. Old English, for example, had a number of case and gender distinctions which were lost during the Middle English period. 7.3.4 Loss of inflection Inflections often change by a process of rule-generalization, e. g. Old English: stan/ slanas gear/gear Modern English: stone/ stones year/years 7.4 Vocabulary change Vocabulary change can include: addition of new words; loss of words; changes in the meaning of words.     

7.4.1 Addition of new words c) Blending: d) Acronyms:    a) Coinage: a new word can be coined outright to fit some purpose: walkman,    b) Clipped words: clipping refers to the abbreviation of longer words or phrases Gym — gymnasium; fridge — refrigerator; disco --- discotheque c)  Blending: A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words Smog--- smoke+ fog; motel--- motor+ hotel; brunch--- breakfast + recorder d) Acronyms: words derived from the initials of several words WTO--- World Trade Organization; IT--- information technology e) Back-formation: new words may be coined from already existing words by “subtracting” an affix though to be part of the old word. Such words are thus called back-formation To edit--- (derived from editor); to beg--- (derived from beggar) f) Functional shift Noun to verb: to knee; to shoulder; to tape Verb to noun: a hold; a reject; a retreat Adjective to verb: to cool; to narrow; to slow

7.4.3 Changes in the meaning of words d) Borrowing: When different cultures come into contact, words are often “borrowed” from one language to another. The loan word may label a new concept, or it may replace or become a synonym of a native word. 7.4.2 Loss of words The loss of words takes place gradually over the course of several generations. On the other hand, the arrival of a new word is quite obvious and often draws attention. 7.4.3 Changes in the meaning of words a)  Widening of meaning b) Narrowing of meaning c)Meaning shift   7.5 Some recent trends Moving towards greater informality The influence of American English The influence of science and technology: a) space travel b) computer and internet language c) ecology

7.6 Causes of language change 1) The rapid development of science and technology has led to the creation of many new words 2) As more and more women have taken up activities formerly reserved for men, more neutral job titles have been created. 3)The way children acquire the language provides a basic cause of change. 4) Another source of change which can be regarded as “economy of memory” results in grammar simplification. 5) Regularization of exceptional plural forms provides another example for analogical change   Books for further reading: 1. Freeborn, D. 2000. From Old English to Standard English Second edition. Beijing Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press. The End