Week # Toward a New World-view (p ) The Scientific Revolution The Enlightenment The Enlightenment and Absolutism

Background to the Scientific Revolution Medieval Science Renaissance Humanists Contradictions of Aristotle and Galen Contradictions of Aristotle and Galen Renaissance artists and their impact on scientific study Close Observation of Nature Close Observation of Nature Perspective and Anatomical Proportions Perspective and Anatomical Proportions Technical Problems Mathematics Hermetic Magic Alchemy Alchemy

Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy Aristotle, Claudius Ptolemy and Christian Theology Geocentric Universe Ten Spheres surrounded the Earth Ten Spheres surrounded the Earth Christianized Ptolemaic Universe Christianized Ptolemaic Universe

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Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy Copernicus Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 – 1543) On The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres On The Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres Heliocentric Universe Heliocentric Universe Creates doubt about the Ptolemaic system Creates doubt about the Ptolemaic system

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A Revolution in Astronomy, Continued Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630) Interest in Hermetic thought and Mathematical magic Interest in Hermetic thought and Mathematical magic “Music of the Spheres” “Music of the Spheres” Laws of Planetary Motion Laws of Planetary Motion Discredits Ptolemaic System Discredits Ptolemaic System

A Revolution in Astronomy, Continued Galileo Galilei (1564 – 1642) The Telescope The Telescope The Starry Messenger The Starry Messenger Condemned by the Church Condemned by the Church Scientific leadership passes to England, France and the Netherlands Scientific leadership passes to England, France and the Netherlands

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Johannes Hevelius - German/Polish astrologer - ( ) - Located telescope on roof of house and in 1660s was the most highly regarded observatory in Europe

Isaac Newton (1642 – 1727) Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge University Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1684 – 1686): The Principia Three Laws of Motions Three Laws of MotionsGravity World seen in mechanistic terms God – still connected theories to0.

Advances in Medicine Medieval Medicine dominated by Galen Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564) On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543) On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543) Dissection of a human body Dissection of a human body Corrects Galen’s errors Corrects Galen’s errors William Harvey On the Motion of the Heart and Blood (1628) On the Motion of the Heart and Blood (1628) Circulation of the blood Circulation of the blood

Women in the Origins of Modern Science New Opportunities for Women Largely informal education Margaret Cavendish (1623 – 1673) Observations upon Experimental Philosophy Observations upon Experimental Philosophy Grounds of Natural Philosophy Grounds of Natural Philosophy Attacked rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge Attacked rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge

Women in the Origins of Modern Science German Women 1 of 7 German astronomers was a woman 1 of 7 German astronomers was a woman Maria Winkelmann (1670 – 1720) Maria Winkelmann (1670 – 1720) Discovered comet Rejected for a post by the Berlin Academy Because of no formal upper education Because of no formal upper education

Debate over the nature and value of women Women portrayed as inherently base, prone to vice, easily swayed, and “sexually insatiable” Women joined debate in the 17th century and reject this view Science used to “perpetrate old stereotypes about women” Scientific revolution reaffirmed traditional ideas about women’s nature

Toward a New Earth: Descartes, Rationalism, and a New View of Humankind Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650) Discourse on Method (1637) Discourse on Method (1637) “I think, therefore I am.” “I think, therefore I am.” Separation of mind and matter Separation of mind and matter Cartesian Dualism Cartesian Dualism Father of modern rationalism Father of modern rationalism

Descartes with Queen Christina of Sweden Descartes used reason to guide his theories. Painting shows how the queen had a deep interest in philosophy

Louis XIV and Colbert Visit the Academy of Science Notice the seating and hovering around the king to give notice

Royal Observatory at Greenwich 1675

Science and Religion in the Seventeenth Century Conflict between Science and Religion Scientific beliefs triumph Scientific beliefs triumph Religious beliefs suffer Religious beliefs suffer

Science and Religion in the Seventeenth Century Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662) Sought to keep science and religion united Sought to keep science and religion united Mystical vision (1654) Mystical vision (1654) Pensées (Thoughts) Pensées (Thoughts) Sought to convert rationalists to Christianity Sought to convert rationalists to Christianity Christianity not contrary to reason Christianity not contrary to reason Reason had limits Reason had limits

The Spread of Scientific Knowledge The Scientific Method Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626) Francis Bacon (1561 – 1626) Rejects Copernicus and Kepler; Misunderstands Galileo The Great Instauration (The Great Restoration) Correct Scientific Method built on inductive principles Proceed from the particular to the general Experimentation Control and domination of nature Descartes Descartes Deduction and mathematical logic Newton Newton Unites Bacon’s empiricism and Descartes rationalism

The Scientific Societies English Royal Society Informal meetings at London and Oxford Informal meetings at London and Oxford Received formal charter in 1662 from Charles II Received formal charter in 1662 from Charles II French Royal Academy Informal meetings in Paris Informal meetings in Paris Formally recognized by Louis XIV (1666) Formally recognized by Louis XIV (1666) Societies recognized practical value of scientific research Both focus on theoretical work in mechanics and astronomy

Science and Society People recognized Science’s rational superiority Science offered new ways to exploit resources for profit

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The Enlightenment Paths to Enlightenment Popularization of Science Popularization of Science Bernard de Fontenelle (1657 – 1757), Plurality of Worlds A New Skepticism A New Skepticism Attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism Skepticism about religion and growing secularization Pierre Bayle (1647 – 1706) The Impact of Travel Literature The Impact of Travel Literature Travel books became very popular Captain James Cook, Travels Literature on China Cultural relativism

The Legacy of Locke & Newton Newton Reason could discover natural laws that govern politics, economics justice, religion, and the arts Reason could discover natural laws that govern politics, economics justice, religion, and the arts Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding Knowledge derived from the environment Knowledge derived from the environment Denied Descartes’ belief in innate ideas Denied Descartes’ belief in innate ideas

The Philosophes and their Ideas Came from all walks of life Paris was the “capital” Desire to change the world Call for a spirit of rational criticism 3 French Giants: Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Diderot

Montesquieu and Political Thought Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu ( ) Persian Letters, 1721 Persian Letters, 1721 Attacks traditional religion, advocacy of religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of reason Attacks traditional religion, advocacy of religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of reason The Spirit of the Laws, 1748; comparative study of government The Spirit of the Laws, 1748; comparative study of government

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Voltaire and the Enlightenment Francois-Marie Arouet, Voltaire ( ) Criticism of Traditional Religion Philosophic Letters on the English, 1733 Treatise on Toleration, 1763 Deism

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Diderot and the Encyclopedia Denis Diderot ( ) Encyclopedia, 28 volumes Attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration Lowered price helped to spread the ideas of the Enlightenment

The New “Science of Man” David Hume (1711 – 1776) Treatise on Human Nature Treatise on Human NaturePhysiocrats François Quesnay ( ) François Quesnay ( ) Leader of the Physiocrat – natural economic laws Rejection of mercantilism Supply and demand

Adam Smith & Laissez-Faire Economics Adam Smith ( ) The Wealth of Nations, 1776 The Wealth of Nations, 1776 Attack on mercantilism Attack on mercantilism Advocate of free trade Advocate of free trade Government has only three basic functions Government has only three basic functions Protect society from invasion Defend individuals from injustice and oppression Keep up public works

The Later Enlightenment Baron Paul d’Holbach (1723 – 1789) System of Nature, 1770 System of Nature, 1770 Marie-Jean de Condorcet (1743 – 1794) The Progress of the Human Mind The Progress of the Human Mind

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Rousseau and the Social Contract Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( ) Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind; preservation of private property had enslaved the mass of society Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind; preservation of private property had enslaved the mass of society Social Contract, 1762; Tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority Social Contract, 1762; Tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority Concept of General Will Concept of General Will Emile, 1762; important work on education Emile, 1762; important work on education Major influence on the development of Romanticism Major influence on the development of Romanticism

The “Woman’s Question” in the Enlightenment Most philosophes agreed that the nature of women make them inferior Mary Astell ( ) A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, 1697 A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, 1697 Better education and equality in marriage Better education and equality in marriage Mary Wollstonecraft Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792 Vindication of the Rights of Woman, 1792 Subjection of women by men wrong Subjection of women by men wrong

Social Environment of the Philosophes Salons The Influence of Women Marie-Thérèse de Geoffrin (1699 – 1777) Marie-Thérèse de Geoffrin (1699 – 1777) Marquise du Deffand (1697 – 1780) Marquise du Deffand (1697 – 1780) Other social centers of the Enlightenment: coffeehouses, cafes, clubs, libraries, societies

Innovations in Art Rococo Art Antoine Watteau ( ) Fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love, and life Fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love, and life Baroque-Rococo architectural style Balthasar Neumann ( ) Balthasar Neumann ( ) Secular and spiritual interchangeable Secular and spiritual interchangeable Continuing Popularity of Neoclassicism

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Innovations in Music and Literature Baroque Music Johann Sebastian Bach ( ) Johann Sebastian Bach ( ) George Frederick Handel ( ) George Frederick Handel ( ) Franz Joseph Haydn ( ) Franz Joseph Haydn ( ) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ( ) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart ( ) The Development of the Novel Samuel Richardson (1689 – 1761) Samuel Richardson (1689 – 1761) Henry Fielding (1707 – 1754) Henry Fielding (1707 – 1754) The Writing of History A broader scope A broader scope Weakness of philosophe-historians Weakness of philosophe-historians

The High Culture of the Eighteenth Century High Culture Versus Popular Culture Expansion of Publishing and Reading Public Development of magazines and newspapers for the general public Development of magazines and newspapers for the general public Education and Universities Secondary schools Secondary schoolsCurriculum

Crime and Punishment Punishment in the Eighteenth Century Cesare Beccaria ( ), On Crimes and Punishments Punishment should serve only as deterrent Punishment should serve only as deterrent Punishment moved away from spectacle towards rehabilitation

The World of Medicine Hierarchy of Practitioners Physicians Physicians Surgeons Surgeons Apothecaries Apothecaries Midwives Midwives Faith healers Faith healers

Popular Culture Nature of Popular Culture Collective and public Collective and publicCarnival Indulgence and release Indulgence and release Taverns and Alcohol Community centers Community centers Cheap alcohol Cheap alcohol Literacy and Primary Education Chapbooks Chapbooks Literacy rates Literacy rates Primary education Primary education

Religion and the Churches The Institutional Church Conservative nature of mainstream churches Conservative nature of mainstream churches Church-state relations Church-state relations “Nationalization” of the Catholic church “Nationalization” of the Catholic church Toleration and Religious Minorities Toleration and the Jews Toleration and the Jews Experiences of Ashkenazic Jews Experiences of Sephardic Jews Some Enlightenment thinkers favored acceptance of the Jews Joseph II Joseph II Limited reforms toward the Jews

Popular Religion in the Eighteenth Century Catholic Piety Centrality of the local parish Centrality of the local parish Popular devotion Popular devotion Protestant Revivalism Pietism Pietism John Wesley ( ) John Wesley ( ) Methodist societies