jihad = “striving/struggle” On battlefield, speaking to defend faith, working against evil Particular importance of struggle vs. inner sinfulness Jihad doctrine forming in late 8th c./early 9th c.

Mixed attitude to violence in Qur’an Traditional reading: initially non-violent position, but move to defensive warfare in face of Meccan threats after emigration to Medina in 622, then offensive warfare as fighting continued Restrictions even on offensive warfare

Example - initial non-violence: Invite (all) to the Way of thy Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching; and argue with them in ways that are best and most gracious: for thy Lord knoweth best, who have strayed from His Path, and who receive guidance. And if ye do catch them out, catch them out no worse than they catch you out: But if ye show patience, that is indeed the best (course) for those who are patient. Qur’an 16:

Example - defensive warfare: To those against whom war is made, permission is given (to fight), because they are wronged;- and verily, Allah is most powerful for their aid;- (They are) those who have been expelled from their homes in defiance of right,- (for no cause) except that they say, “our Lord is Allah”. Did not Allah check one set of people by means of another, there would surely have been pulled down monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques, in which the name of Allah is commemorated in abundant measure. Allah will certainly aid those who aid his (cause);- for verily Allah is full of Strength, Exalted in Might, (able to enforce His Will). Qur’an 22: 39-40

Example - restrictions on warfare: Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors. Qur’an 2: 190

Example - offensive warfare: But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war); but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practise regular charity, then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful. Qur’an 9: 5

Example - offensive warfare: Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued. Qur’an 9: 29

People of the Book (ahl al-kitab): Those who believe (in the Qur’an), and those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Christians and the Sabians,- any who believe in Allah and the Last Day, and work righteousness, shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve. Qur’an 2: 62

People of the Book (ahl al-kitab): Those who believe (in the Qur’an), those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Sabians, Christians, Magians, and Polytheists,- Allah will judge between them on the Day of Judgment: for Allah is witness of all things. Qur’an 22: 17

Jesus in the Qur’an: And behold! Allah will say: “O Jesus the son of Mary! Didst thou say unto men, worship me and my mother as gods in derogation of Allah?” He will say: “Glory to Thee! never could I say what I had no right (to say). Had I said such a thing, thou wouldst indeed have known it. Thou knowest what is in my heart, though I know not what is in Thine. For Thou knowest in full all that is hidden.” Qur’an 5: 116

Christians and Jews in the Qur’an: The Jews call ‘Uzair [Ezra] a son of Allah, and the Christians call Christ the son of Allah. That is a saying from their mouth; (in this) they but imitate what the unbelievers of old used to say. Allah’s curse be on them: how they are deluded away from the Truth! Qur’an 9: 30

Mixed attitude to non-Muslims in Qur’an Rulings based on Qur’an 9: 29: non-pagan non-Muslims allowed freedom of worship in return for obedience and jizya (poll tax) Sometimes additional restrictions Truces of increasing length with foreign, non- Muslim powers

Ptolemy (d. c. 165) Seven “climes”

Warlike Franks: e.g. Battle of Tours/Poitiers, 732/33 Also in Byzantine forces? Only significant presence from 11th century Al-Mas‘udi (d. 956): Muruj al-Dhahab wa Ma‘adin al-Jawhar (Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gemstone) vs. Kitab al-Tanbih wa’l-Ishraf (Book of Instruction and Supervision)

Other features of the Franks: Who is their king? Al-Mas‘udi’s king list; Ibn Rustah (9th-10th c.) and the pope Capital? Rome? Paris? Relationship with Byzantines? Impact of shared religion Role of fanciful stories? Role of account of Frankish embassy of 906?

Al-Istakhri (10th c.) Ibn Hawqal (10th c.)