Learning Learning – A lasting change in behavior or mental processes that results from experience. No topic is closer to the heart of psychology. Shapes our thought and language, our motivations and emotions, and our personalities and perceptions.

Associative Learning Associative Learning – Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli, or a response and its consequences.

Habituation Habituation – Learning not to respond to the repeated presentation of a stimulus. Simple form of learning. Example – If you live near a busy street, you learn to ignore the sound of traffic.

Mere Exposure Effect Mere Exposure Effect – A learned preference for stimuli to which we have been previously exposed.

Behavioral Learning Behavioral Learning – Forms of learning, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, that can be described in terms of stimuli and responses.

Classical Conditioning Classical Conditioning –Form of behavioral learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus. Learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events. Example – Lightening strikes, we learn to anticipate the crack of thunder.

Neutral Stimulus Neutral Stimulus – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning. When it is brought into a conditioning experiment, the researcher will call it a conditioned stimulus. The assumption is that some conditioning occurs after even one pairing of the CS and UCS.

Pavlov’s Dogs Ivan Pavlov – Russian Psychologist Dog experiment: Before Conditioning (food not paired with tone) Food in mouth = Dog Salivation Tone = No Salivation After Conditioning (food paired with tone) Tone + Food in mouth = Dog Salivation Tone = Salivation

Classical Conditioning Unconditioned Stimulus – A stimulus that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response (unconditioned response). Unconditioned Response – The response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.

Classical Conditioning Conditioned Stimulus – An originally irrelevant or neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response. Conditioned Response – The learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

Another Example (Cancer Patient) Radiation Treatment (US) = Nausea (UR) Waiting Room (CS) + Radiation Treatment (US) = Nausea (UR) Waiting Room (CS) = Nausea (CR)

Acquisition Acquisition – The initial learning stage in classical conditioning, during which the conditioned response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery Extinction – The weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus. Spontaneous Recovery – The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay.

Generalization Stimulus Generalization – The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimuli. Example – Dogs salivate in response to a tone that is different, but somewhat similar to the CS.

Stimulus Discrimination Stimulus Discrimination – A change in responses to one stimulus but not to stimuli that are similar.

Experimental Neurosis Experimental Neurosis – A pattern of erratic behavior resulting from a demanding discrimination learning task, typically one that involves aversive stimuli.

Applications of Classical Conditioning Example: Taste-Aversion Learning – A biological tendency in which an organism learns, after a single experience, to avoid a food with a certain taste, if eating it is followed by illness.

Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning –A form of behavioral learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences – that is, by the stimuli that follow the response. We learn to associate a response (our behavior) and its consequence. Repeat acts follow by good results. Avoid acts followed by bad results.

Law of Effect Law of effect – The idea that responses that produced desirable results would be learned, or “stamped” into the organism.

Operant Conditioning Reinforcement – A condition (involving either the presentation or removal of a stimulus) that occurs after a response and strengthens that response. Punishment – Encourages us to learn to not repeat behaviors that bring about punishment.

Types of Reinforcement Positive Reinforcement – Add a desirable stimulus. Example – Getting a hug; receiving a paycheck. Negative Reinforcement – Remove an undesirable stimulus. Example – Fastening a seatbelt to turn off beeping.

Reinforcement Contingencies Relationships between a response and the changes in stimulation that follow the response. AKA – How frequently reinforcement is given. Very important in learning.

Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement – All correct responses are reinforced. Shaping – Reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response. Intermittent reinforcement – Some, but not all correct responses are reinforced (partial reinforcement). Extinction – Response is weakened by the absence or removal of reinforcement. Ratio Schedule – Reinforcement depends on the number of correct responses.

Reinforcement Schedules Interval Schedule – A program by which reinforcement depends on the time interval elapsed since the last reinforcement. Fixed Ratio Schedule – Reinforcement is contingent on a certain, unvarying number of responses. Variable Ratio Schedule – Number of responses required for a reinforcement varies from trial to trial. Fixed Interval Schedule – Reinforcement is contingent on a certain, fixed time period. Variable Interval Schedule – Programs by which the time period between reinforcements varies from trial to trial.

Primary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcers – Reinforcers, such as food and sex, that have an innate basis because of their biological value to an organism.

Conditioned / Secondary Reinforcers Conditioned / Secondary Reinforcers – Stimuli, such as money or tokens, that acquire their reinforcing power by a learned association with primary reinforcers. Token Economy – Therapeutic method by which individuals are rewarded with tokens, which act as secondary reinforcers. Tokens can be redeemed for a variety of rewards and privileges. Premack Principle – The concept that a more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.

Types of Punishment Positive Punishment – Administer an undesirable stimulus. Example – Spanking; a parking ticket. Negative Punishment (AKA omission training) – Withdraw a desirable stimulus. Example – Time-out from privileges (such as time with friends); revoked driver’s license.

Skinner’s Box

Applications of Operant Conditioning Principles can be used (and have been used) to increase productivity: At School In Athletics At Work At Home

Insight Learning Insight Learning – A form of cognitive learning, originally described by the Gestalt psychologists, in which problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions. Kohler and the Chimps!!!

Cognitive Maps Cognitive Map – A mental representation of physical space. Tolman!

Observational Learning Higher animals, especially humans, can learn without direct experience, by observing or imitating others.

Observational Learning Albert Bandura and the Bobo Doll

Brain Mechanisms and Learning Long-Term Potentiation – A biological process, involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of nerve cells, which is believed to be the neural basis of learning.

Learning Styles Visual Auditory Tactile / Kinesthetic

Visual Learners Learn by watching people do things. Different colors help them study and remember. Use a lot of highlighters. Like to read instructions and other materials on their own. Like to see demonstrations

Auditory Learners Learn best by listening. Do well with lectures and class discussions. Like to have teachers read directions to them.

Tactile / Kinesthetic Learners Learn best through hands-on activities. Excel in experiments, demonstrations. Typically do well in science.