Part IV: Social Institutions

 Although some people might use the words power and authority interchangeably, there is a subtle distinction between the two.  Power is the ability to control the behavior of others, even against their will, while authority is power accepted as legitimate by those subject to it.  Political systems can be based on three types of authority: charismatic, traditional, and rational-legal.  Democratic, totalitarian, and authoritarian are types of political systems; they are distinguished by the degree of power exercised by rulers and the extent of freedom allowed the people who are ruled.

 In the United States, political participation is demonstrated through voting, which is limited by the range of candidates.  In American society, two major models of political power are evident — elitism and pluralism. The functionalist perspective believes that pluralism best describes the distribution of power in America. Elitism is based on the conflict perspective.

 A variety of economic systems are in place in countries throughout the world.  Capitalism is founded on the principles of private ownership of property and the pursuit of profit.  Socialism is based on the belief that the means of production should be controlled by the people as a whole.  Examples of pure capitalism or pure socialism are rare, however—most nations of the world fall between the two extremes by practicing mixed economic systems.

 Sociologists study corporations because of their great importance in modern economic systems.  Corporations — especially multinationals — have grown very powerful. Some even boast sales volumes that exceed the annual economic output of some industrialized nations.  Corporate managers affect domestic political decision making and influence the political and economic institutions of countries around the world.

 A modern society is composed of three basic economic sectors — primary, secondary, and tertiary.  The balance of power among the three changes over time. Workers today face a changing occupational structure, with such trends as downsizing and contingent employment becoming more prevalent. Some evidence indicates that these trends are having negative consequences.

 In all societies, the family has been the most important of all social institutions.  There are two basic types of families — nuclear and extended — and many different patterns of family structure.  Various types and norms for marriage arrangements also exist.

 Each of the three major theoretical perspectives focuses on the importance and role of the family in a different way.  Functionalism emphasizes the benefits of the family for society. Families benefit society by socializing children; regulating sexual activity; transmitting social status; and serving socioemotional, reproductive, and economic functions.  Conflict theorists focus on the way family members compete and cooperate.  According to symbolic interactionism, a key to understanding behavior within the family lies in the interactions among family members and the meanings that members assign to these interactions.

 Families in the United States tend to follow certain patterns — they are generally nuclear, bilineal, democratic, neolocal, and monogamous.  While romantic love is almost always stated as a condition for marriage in modern societies, other factors also influence people to marry. A variety of factors — both personal and societal — also influence why people divorce.  Americans traditionally have denied the existence of family violence. However, many families at all class levels have been affected by some form of family violence.

 Many new patterns of marriage and family have emerged in the United States. Blended families, single-parent families, same-sex domestic partners, cohabitation, and families with boomerang children have all become more common.  Recent marriage trends also include childless marriages, dual-employed marriages, and Americans choosing to remain single.  Despite all of these new patterns and changes in American family life, the nuclear family remains the most popular choice among Americans.

 Although schools in America today have evolved from the factory-model system of education prevalent in the early 1900s, they are still based on specialization, rules and procedures, and impersonality.  Proponents of the bureaucratic system claim that it is efficient and enables specialization among professional educators. Critics argue that this system is inappropriate and cannot adequately respond to the needs of all children.  Various movements have sought to reform education. The humanistic movement in education, beginning in the 1960s, focused on creating a more democratic, student- focused learning environment. In the 1990s, the "back-to- basics" movement pushed for a return to a traditional curriculum and more bureaucratic methods. Other debates have arisen over voucher systems, charter schools, magnet schools, and for-profit schools.

 Each of sociology's theoretical perspectives views education in a different way.  Functionalists see the emergence of schools as a response to society's needs to transmit culture, create a common identity, select and screen talent, and promote personal growth and development.  Latent functions can be positive, such as serving as training grounds for athletes, or negative, such as tracking that perpetuates an unequal class structure.

 Proponents of the conflict theory attempt to show that popular conceptions about the relationship between schools and society are not quite accurate.  In a meritocracy, ability and achievement rather than social-class background or parental status determine social status. However, educational inequality exists in school systems throughout the country. Gender, race, and distribution of wealth all can affect equality in education.

 Symbolic interactionists emphasize the socialization that occurs in schools, and how the hidden curriculum teaches children values, norms, beliefs, and attitudes.  This socialization is important in helping young people to make the transition from home to the larger society.  Teachers can affect achievement by setting high expectations; they can also perpetuate gender identity by expecting more from boys than girls.

 Religion, as defined by Emile Durkheim, is a unified system of beliefs and practices concerned with sacred things.  The sociological study of religion involves looking at a set of meanings attached to a world beyond human observation.  Sociologists do not judge the validity of various religions, but study those aspects of religion that can be measured and observed in society—the social dimensions of religion.

 Functionalists identify various social functions of religion: it gives formal approval to existing social arrangements, encourages a sense of unity, and provides a sense of understanding and belonging.  Conflict theory focuses on how religion works to either inhibit or encourage social change.  Symbolic interactionists believe that the symbolic meanings of religious traditions are used to guide everyday social interaction.

 The major forms of religious organizations are churches, denominations, sects, and cults.  The types of religious attitudes and behavior people display in their everyday lives are called religiosity.  Religiosity can be analyzed in terms of five dimensions—belief, ritual, intellectual, experience, and consequences.

 Sociologists study medicine as a social institution.  Three of its primary characteristics are professionalism, bureaucracy, and the profit motive.

 Functionalists stress that in return for being excused from their usual activities, people have to accept the sick role.  Conflict theorists note that health care is one of the scarce resources over which groups compete. Choices must be made whether to offer rationed health care for all, or allow people to receive what they can afford.  Symbolic interactionists observe cultural definitions of “sickness” and “health,” as they are not the same in all cultures.

 Patterns of disease have changed in the last century due to modern medicine. The top ten killers of today were relatively unknown 100 years ago.  Mental illness has increased dramatically in modern times due to the fact that more syndromes have been identified and diagnosed.

 Because health care is a commodity to be bought and sold, the poor receive inferior care compared to the wealthy.  One problem driving up the cost of health care is defensive medicine – tests and procedures that do not help the patient, but are done to protect the doctor from lawsuits.  Advances in medical care have made “end-of-life” issues more complex and controversial.