World War I The Guns of August

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The International System before World War I Concert of Europe & the balance of power Concert of Europe & the balance of power Increasing rigidity Increasing rigidity Triple Alliance:Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy Triple EntenteTriple Entente France, Russia & perhaps Britain France, Russia & perhaps Britain Increasing tension, crises… Increasing tension, crises…

Tripping into war: June-Aug.1914 June 28: Assassination in Sarajevo of Franz-Ferdinand and wife June 28: Assassination in Sarajevo of Franz-Ferdinand and wife Austria blames Serbia (parallel with the 1990s) Austria blames Serbia (parallel with the 1990s) The German ‘blank-check’ The German ‘blank-check’ believe Russia will not intervene believe Russia will not intervene if it does Germany can deal with both Russia and France –Schlieffen plan)if it does Germany can deal with both Russia and France –Schlieffen plan)

June-August 1914 Austria’s ultimatum of July 23 Austria’s ultimatum of July 23 Serbia begins mobilizationSerbia begins mobilization July 25 answer is givenJuly 25 answer is given July 28 declaration of war July 28 declaration of war July 29 first shells on Belgrade. July 29 first shells on Belgrade. Russian call for general mobilization (against both Austria and Germany)Russian call for general mobilization (against both Austria and Germany) Rethinks it and then starts again.Rethinks it and then starts again.

June-July 1914 July 29: France tells Russia it will stand by her July 29: France tells Russia it will stand by her Germany tells Russia to stop mobilization and France to declare neutrality Germany tells Russia to stop mobilization and France to declare neutrality Russia refusesRussia refuses Germany declares war on Aug. 1.Germany declares war on Aug. 1. Aug. 1: France mobilizes Aug. 1: France mobilizes doesn’t believe Germany will respect neutralitydoesn’t believe Germany will respect neutrality

August 1914 Germany asks Belgium for free passage Germany asks Belgium for free passage Declares war on France, Aug. 3Declares war on France, Aug. 3 Enter Belgium Aug 4thEnter Belgium Aug 4th Britain declares war on GermanyBritain declares war on Germany War greeted with enthusiasm & nationalist fervor on both sides: War greeted with enthusiasm & nationalist fervor on both sides: Last European war, , lasted 6 monthsLast European war, , lasted 6 months

WW1: expectations v. realities: A short war A short war Failure of initial offensives Failure of initial offensives Schlieffen Plan not fully implemented -- Von Moltke modifiesSchlieffen Plan not fully implemented -- Von Moltke modifies Digging in on the western front: Digging in on the western front: Initial offence gives way to stalemateInitial offence gives way to stalemate Trench warfare Trench warfare Tunnelling Tunnelling Movement on the eastern front Movement on the eastern front

Western Front: 1914

Western Front, 1916

Trenches

War fields - Somme

Battle of the Somme – 1 July

Newfoundland Regiment No. 3 Platoon, A Company

Newfoundland soldiers on St. John’s Road

The ‘Danger Tree’

After 16 days of battle – July 16

Hawthorn Ridge mine 1 July 1916

In the trenches

Attack

A common sight in the Somme

Newfoundland War Memorial

Costs in human life Battle of the Somme Battle of the Somme Allies: 600,000 ( of which over 24,000 Canadians and over 245 Newfoundlanders)Allies: 600,000 ( of which over 24,000 Canadians and over 245 Newfoundlanders) July 1 alone: 60,000July 1 alone: 60,000 Germans: 615,000Germans: 615,000 Total for WWI 9,000,000 Total for WWI 9,000,000

Casualties

Passchendaele village, before and after

The tank appears

Failure of peace initiatives Desire of France and Germany to maintain buffer states on borders Desire of France and Germany to maintain buffer states on borders Incorporation of new allies with demands on territory of belligerents Incorporation of new allies with demands on territory of belligerents

Determining factors: Supply of food and raw materials Supply of food and raw materials Exhaustion of combatants Exhaustion of combatants Success of British naval blockade Success of British naval blockade American entry (triggered by German submarine warfare) American entry (triggered by German submarine warfare)

Causes of war Continuing debate, multiple explanations, some better than others: Arms race & especially those who benefitted: munitions-makers Arms race & especially those who benefitted: munitions-makers Nationalism Nationalism Capitalism itself (Orthodox Marxists) Capitalism itself (Orthodox Marxists) Entangling alliances and secret covenants (Woodrow Wilson) Entangling alliances and secret covenants (Woodrow Wilson)

A broader view: Long: industrialization, population growth, social and political change Long: industrialization, population growth, social and political change Medium: Medium: changes in the balance of powerchanges in the balance of power rise of Germany a threat to France and Britainrise of Germany a threat to France and Britain decline of Ottoman empiredecline of Ottoman empire Short: events of August 1914 Short: events of August 1914

Systemic factors: System of alliances System of alliances Balance of power Balance of power Aim was preventing Germany from becoming dominant power)Aim was preventing Germany from becoming dominant power) However system fails?However system fails? Did Britain make its position clearDid Britain make its position clear German aggression (Weltpolitik)? German aggression (Weltpolitik)? Crumbling empires Crumbling empires

Other factors Popular pressure, Popular pressure, magnified by newspapers,magnified by newspapers, nationalismnationalism Inflexible military plans, railway timetables Inflexible military plans, railway timetables Leaders take risks, not fully understood, slide into war Leaders take risks, not fully understood, slide into war

Consequences: an initial view End of empires in Berlin, Vienna, St. Petersburg (Bolshevik revolution of 1917) and Constantinople-Istanbul. End of empires in Berlin, Vienna, St. Petersburg (Bolshevik revolution of 1917) and Constantinople-Istanbul. European economic dislocation, indebtedness of European countries to the United States and end of central role of Europe in the global economy and rise of the US. European economic dislocation, indebtedness of European countries to the United States and end of central role of Europe in the global economy and rise of the US. Widespread disillusionment Widespread disillusionment