SOME BATTLES RAGED LONG AFTER THE ARMISTICE : Russian Civil War (Reds vs. Whites) January-June 1919: Versailles Conference makes peace with Germany and Austria September 1919: Italian Nationalists seize Fiume : Greco-Turkish War : Russo-Polish War October 1922: Italian Fascist March on Rome

The “Big Four” at Versailles (January-June 1919): David Lloyd George, Orlando, Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson. Wilson called for a new “democratic diplomacy,” based on “open covenants, openly arrived at.” The Congress of Vienna: Wellington, Hardenberg, Metternich, Castlereagh, and Talleyrand

Woodrow Wilson despised his predecessor, William Howard Taft, as a champion of “dollar diplomacy.” But Taft DID support international courts of arbitration. In 1916, 70% of U.S. voters supported a “League of Nations,” and Teddy Roosevelt was almost the only leader to champion unrestricted national sovereignty.

The impact of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany (France occupied the Rhineland until 1930, the Saarland until 1935)

Sir William Orpen, “The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors, Versailles, 28 June 1919”

Delegation of French wounded at the signing ceremony for the Treaty of Versailles, 28 June 1919

KEY DECISIONS AT VERSAILLES IN 1919  National self-determination for Poles, “Czechoslovaks”, “Yugoslavs”, Romanians, Latvians, Lithuanians, & Estonians  Formation of a “League of Nations” dedicated to “collective security” (but votes must be unanimous)  Italy gains the south Tirol but must renounce Dalmatia; the status of Fiume remains disputed  Great Britain gains control of Germany’s African colonies, Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq as “League of Nations Mandates”; France gains Syria, Lebanon, and Cameroon  Germany must pay war reparations equal to the entire cost of the war and reduce its army to 100,000 men

THE POSTWAR BORDERS OF EUROPE Regions whose status was NOT resolved at Versailles: Fiume Upper Silesia Eastern Poland Russia Turkey

European language groups, 1910 Postwar borders, 1921

The Russian Civil War, 1918/19: In January 1919, Field Marshall Ferdinand Foch advocated massive intervention from Odessa, Murmansk, Archangel, Vladivostok, Poland and Romania (Brose, )

Japanese troops in Vladivostok, 1919 (they remained until 1922)

“Long live the three-million-man Red Army!” (USSR, 1919): The Reds won many victories in summer 1919….

“Capitalists of the World, Unite!” A Soviet poster from 1920 to denounce the Imperialists

Soviet leaders all hoped at first for world revolution: “Long Live the Third Communist International!” (1920)

Polish peasants with their scythes volunteer to fight in the Russo-Polish War, 1920

The front line in the Russo-Polish War in June 1920, at the height of Polish success (final border in black)

Field Marshal Jozef Pilsudski, Polish chief of state, ; dictator,

Italy gained the Trentino (with 230,000 German-speakers) and Trieste, but NOT Istria and Dalmatia, with 1.3 million South Slavs. Orlando dug in his heels over Fiume….

Gabriele d’Annunzio, the Italian poet and war hero who led volunteers into Fiume in September 1919, the first “duce”

Benito Mussolini ( , photographed in 1911): school teacher, revolutionary Marxist, editor of the main Italian Socialist newspaper,

Mussolini as a volunteer in the Italian army, He founded an interventionist newspaper in 1915 and served at the front for nine months.

A modern reenactment of a procession of lictors, who carried before the ancient consuls of Rome the fasces that symbolized their authority. In Italian fascio can refer to a bundle of sticks or a band of men. In 1915 Mussolini helped to found the Fasci d’azione rivolutionaria to agitate for intervention in the war.

Mussolini founded his Fascist National Party in 1919 to appeal to workers and combat veterans disillusioned with Marxism; to his surprise the party attracted mainly rightists who sought to “crush the Reds” FASCIST PROGRAM OF 1919FASCIST PROGRAM OF 1921 Italy must be a republic!Cherish the monarchy! Separate Church & State!Revere the Catholic Church! Nationalize heavy industry!Promote free enterprise! Ally with the Socialists!Crush the Reds! Imperial expansion!

Fascist Black Shirts March on Rome, October 1922

King Victor Emmanuel III ( ; reigned )

Mussolini was very proud of his physique. At bottom he helps to fight the “battle of wheat” in Littoria in 1932.

As Italian prime minister, Mussolini advocated rule by the “aristocracy of the trenches.”

Greek Prime Minister Venizelos and “Megali Hellas” (1920)

Turkish cavalry moves toward the front in the Greco-Turkish War of million Greeks fled Asia Minor, & 500,000 Muslims fled Greece

Already by 1922, it was clear that only the green countries supported the Versailles settlement

“Workers, burghers, farmers, soldiers of every German tribe: Unite in the National Assembly!” (Jan 1919)

The first women elected to a German parliament (Weimar, 1919)

“The Stab in the Back” (Nazi magazine cover, 1924)

“On the 9 th of November 1919” (German Nationalist placard): The anniversary of the Kaiser’s

President Paul von Hindenburg reviews the troops, 1925: The man who led Germany to defeat remained strangely popular