first-generation neutrino telescopes

neutrino muon or tau Cerenkov light cone Detector interaction Infrequently, a cosmic neutrino is captured in the ice, i.e. the neutrino interacts with an ice nucleus The muon radiates blue light in its wake In the crash a muon (or electron, or tau) is produced Optical sensors capture (and map) the light

Optical Module

size perspective 50 m

Amundsen-Scott Station South Pole Optical module AMANDA II

South Pole AMANDA– 1 mile deep

Building AMANDA Drilling Holes with Hot Water The Optical Module

Christchurch, New Zealand Christchurch, New Zealand International Antarctic Center

Logistics simple!

thedome the dome the new station

Hot water drilling

McMurdo, Antarctica

LC-130 Hercules

Building AMANDA

AMANDA II up-going muon up-going muon 61 modules hit 61 modules hit ti ttiimemettiimeme size ~ size ~ number of photons number of photons > 4 neutrinos/day on-line on-line

AMANDA Event Signatures: Muons  + N   +X  + N   + X CC muon neutrino Interaction  track  track

two events 200 TeV e

event reconstruction Maximum Likelihood methodMaximum Likelihood method Take into account time profiles of expected photon flight timesTake into account time profiles of expected photon flight times Bayesian approach - use prior knowledge of expected backgrounds and signalsBayesian approach - use prior knowledge of expected backgrounds and signals

Quality parameters: Example 1: The track length Short track length = more likely to be background

Quality parameters: Example 2: The smoothness The smoothness is a measure of how regular the photon density is distributed along the track. A well reconstructed muon track is more likely to have a high smoothness. High Low

Quality parameters: Example 3: The angular difference between 2 fits A well reconstructed event has better agreement between a simple fit and a full likelihood reconstruction.

Quality Parameters LikelihoodLikelihood Zenith angle mismatch between two types of fits.Zenith angle mismatch between two types of fits. Sphericity of Hits (Brem?)Sphericity of Hits (Brem?) Track Length (is an energy cut, too)Track Length (is an energy cut, too) Smoothness of hits along the trackSmoothness of hits along the track Number of unscattered photonsNumber of unscattered photons Combine 6 to a single event quality parameter.Combine 6 to a single event quality parameter. Only 3 for completed detector!Only 3 for completed detector!

quality cut

Atmospheric muons and neutrinos Atm. Neutrinos (  ): 60/day Atm. Muons: 8.6*10 6 /day Lifetime: 135 days Observed DataPred. Neutrinos Triggered1,200,000, Reconstructed upgoing Pass Cuts (Q ≥ 7)204273

Atmospheric Neutrinos, 97 data vertically uphorizontally  AMANDA sensitivity understood down to normalization factor of ~ 40% (modeling of ice...) ~ 300 events

Understanding Ice and Calibrating AMANDA In situ light sourcesIn situ light sources –Ice properties –Relative PMT timing, gain –Response to electromagnetic showers –crosstalk Downgoing cosmic-ray muonsDowngoing cosmic-ray muons –Relative PMT timing, gain AMANDA-SPASE coincidencesAMANDA-SPASE coincidences –Directionality –Ice properties Atmospheric neutrinosAtmospheric neutrinos –Full detector response

Amanda: time delay due to scattering m 17 m d=32 m delay, nsec d muon 

Ice Properties Most challenging initial problems now understood using in situ lasers and LEDsMost challenging initial problems now understood using in situ lasers and LEDs –Disappearance of bubbles –Mapping of dust layers scatter : 6 m - 52 m scatter : 6 m - 52 m abs : 9 m m abs : 9 m m

AMANDA Is Working Well: 4 nus per day! Sensitivity to up-going muons demonstrated with CC atm. n m interactions: Sensitivity to cascades demonstrated with in-situ sources (see figs.) & down- going muon brems. In-situ light sourceSimulated light source AMANDA also works well with SPASE: AMANDA also works well with SPASE: Calibrate AMANDA angular response Calibrate AMANDA angular response Do cosmic ray composition studies. Do cosmic ray composition studies. HorizontalUp-going MC Data 290 atm.  candidates (2000 data) Zenith

Detector capabilities  muons: directional error: ° energy resolution: ¶ 0.3 – 0.4 coverage: 2   primary cosmic rays: (+ SPASE) energy resolution: ¶ 0.07 – 0.10  „cascades“: (e ±,  , neutral current) zenith error: ° energy resolution: ¶ 0.1 – 0.2 coverage: 4   effective area (schematic):  E E 3 cm 2 -interaction in earth, cuts 2 -5m GeV 100 TeV 100 PeV ¶  [log 10 (E/TeV)]

AMANDA-II Antarctic Muon And Neutrino Detector Array Construction began in 1995 (4 strings)Construction began in 1995 (4 strings) AMANDA-II completed in 2000 (19 strings total)AMANDA-II completed in 2000 (19 strings total) 677 optical modules677 optical modules 200 m across200 m across ~500 m tall (most densely instrumented volume)~500 m tall (most densely instrumented volume)

The AMANDA detector Construction began in 1995 (4 strings)Construction began in 1995 (4 strings) AMANDA-II completed in 2000 (19 strings total)AMANDA-II completed in 2000 (19 strings total) 677 optical modules677 optical modules 200 m across200 m across ~500 m tall (most densely instrumented volume)~500 m tall (most densely instrumented volume)

Slant Depth 1730m 8650m Slant Depth Binning  zenith angle cos θ

Required background rejection Signature Signature Neutrino signal / Neutrino signal / cosmic muon bkg cosmic muon bkg Diffuse flux Diffuse flux ~10 -8 ~10 -8 Point source Point source > > Gamma ray burst Gamma ray burst > > 10 -4

Atmospheric muons in AMANDA-II PRELIMINARY threshold energy ~ 40 GeV (zenith averaged) Atmospheric muons and neutrinos: AMANDA‘s test beams much improved simulation...but data 30% higher than MC...  normalize to most vertical bin Systematic errors:  10% scattering ( 400nm) absorption 400nm)  20% optical module sensitivity  10% refreezing of ice in hole

Down-going Muon Flux Down-going Muon Flux zenith angle zenith angle depth depth

Atmospheric  ’s as Test Beam Neutrino energy in GeV

Atmospheric n's in AMANDA-II  neural network energy reconstruction  regularized unfolding measured atmospheric neutrino spectrum 1 sigma energy error  spectrum up to 100 TeV  compatible with Frejus data presently no sensitivity to LSND/Nunokawa prediction of dip structures between TeV In future, spectrum will be used to study excess due to cosmic ‘s PRELIMINARY

Atmospheric  ’s as Test Beam Selection Criteria:Selection Criteria: –(N hit < 50 only) –Zenith > 110 o –High fit quality –Uniform light deposition along track Excellent shape agreement!Excellent shape agreement! –Less work to obtain than with A-B10 a. b. c.d. Gradual tightening of cuts extracts atm. signal MCData 290 events 2 cuts only! 2 cuts only! > 4 nus per day

Log neutrino energy in GeV AMANDA Energy Measurement from muon’s catastrophic energy loss: 0.3 log E

Cosmic Ray flux measurement empirical separation of ice and OM sensitivity effects PRELIMINARY In some cases ice and OM-sensitivity effect can be circumvented...  (E)=  0 E -  Compatible and competitive (  ) with direct measurements for QGSJET generator:   (H) = 2.70 ± 0.02   0 (H) = 0.106(7) m -2 s -1 sr -1 TeV -1 talk HE2.1-13

South Pole Dark sector AMANDA IceCube Dome Skiway South Pole Air Shower Experiment (SPASE) AMANDA-II: 200 x 500 cylinder + 3 1km strings, running since 2000

cosmic ray composition studies SPASE-2 (electronic component) - AMANDA B10 (muonic component) AMANDA II - unique combination! talk HE robust evidence for composition change around knee... AMANDA (correlate to #muons) SPASE-2 (correlated to #electrons) iron proton log(E/GeV)

publication in preparation Composition change around „knee“ 1998 data eV10 16 eV talk HE A=30 A=6 confirms trend seen by other experiments... blue band: detector and model uncertainties red band: uncertainty due to low energy normalization

1 km 2 km SPASE air shower array Cosmic ray composition preliminary

Relativistic Magnetic Monopoles  = v/c upper limit (cm -2 s -1 sr -1 ) C - light output  n 2 ·(g/e) 2 n 2 ·(g/e) 2 n = 1.33 (g/e) = 137 / 2  8300 KGF Soudan MACRO Orito Baikal Amanda IceCube  electrons

Excess of cosmic neutrinos? Electron + tau (2000 data) „ AGN“ with E -2 GeV -1 cm -2 s -1 sr -1.. for now use number of hit channels as energy variable... muon neutrinos (1997 B10-data) cuts determined by MC – blind analyses !

Excess of cosmic neutrinos? Not yet... cascades (2000 data) „ AGN“ with E -2 GeV -1 cm -2 s -1 sr -1.. for now use number of hit channels as energy variable... muon neutrinos (1997 B10-data) cuts determined by MC – blind analyses !

2.5 ·10 6 – 5.6 ·10 8 GeV: E 2  (E) < 7.2  GeV -1 cm -2 s -1 sr -1 3·10 3 – 10 6 GeV: E 2  (E) < 8  GeV -1 cm -2 s -1 sr -1 Expected sensitivity 2000 data: ~ 3  GeV -1 cm -2 s -1 sr -1 AMANDA II (with 3 years data): ~ 10 X higher Sensitivity Diffuse flux muon neutrinos Note that limits depend on assumed energy spectrum... prel.

Effective Volume for e,  and 

diffuse limit cascades Effective volume 80 TeV – 7 PeV  For E 2  (E) = GeV cm -2 s -1 sr -1 flux would expect: 9.3 e, 6.2 , 8.0  events 2 candidate events total observed E 2  all (E) < 9· GeV cm -2 s -1 sr -1 90% CL limit, assuming e :  :  =1:1:1 : PRELIMINARY

flux results summary (all flavors) assuming e :  :  =1:1:1 ratio: 2000  analysis will yield comparable result...  special analysis for resonant production (6.3 PeV)  multiplicative factor 3 applied for single e,  channels …...can combine analyses!

neutrinos associated with the source of the cosmic rays? AMANDA II sensitivity (00-03) sensitivity (00-03)

theoretical bounds and future atmospheric  W&B MPR DUMAND test string FREJUS NT-200 MACRO  NT-200+ AMANDA-II 5 years IceCube AMANDA-97 AMANDA days opaque for neutrons Mannheim, Protheroe and Rachen (2000) – Waxman, Bahcall (1999)  derived from known limits on extragalactic protons +  -ray flux neutrons can escape

Excess of cosmic neutrinos? Electron + tau (2000 data) „ AGN“ with E -2 GeV -1 cm -2 s -1 sr -1.. for now use number of hit channels as energy variable... muon neutrinos (1997 B10-data) cuts determined by MC – blind analyses !

Ultra High Energy Neutrinos in AMANDA Energy > 10 PeV Energy > 10 PeV All sky All sky Large neutrino cross sections Large neutrino cross sections Large muon range (> 10 km)Large muon range (> 10 km) Competitive with radio, acoustic and air shower experiments

diffuse EHE neutrino flux limits a)Stecker & Salamon (AGN) b)Protheroe (AGN) c)Mannheim (AGN) d)Protheroe & Stanev (TD) e)Engel, Seckel & Stanev Ranges are central 80% AMANDA AMANDA Sensitivity (00-03)

Raffelt astro-ph/ ! Supernova Monitor Amanda-II Amanda-B10 IceCube B10: 60% of Galaxy A-II: 95% of Galaxy IceCube: up to LMC sec Count rates

 sky subdivided into 300 bins (~7°x7°) below horizon:mostly fake events above horizon: mostly atmospheric ‘s  697 events observed above horizon  3% non-neutrino background for  > 5°  cuts optimized in each declination band PRELIMINARY point source search in AMANDA Search for excess events in sky bins for up-going tracks talk HE no clustering observed - no evidence for extraterrestrial neutrinos...

Sourcesdeclination1997 ¶ 2000 SS o -0.7 M o Crab22.0 o Mkn o Mkn o Cyg. X o Cas. A58.8 o selected point source flux limits sensitivity  flat above horizon - 4 times better than B10 ¶ ! declination averaged sensitivity:  lim  cm -2 s PRELIMINARY ¶ published Ap. J, 582 (2003) upper 90% CL in units of cm -2 s -1

muons/cm 2 s published data 1 km 3 detector, 3 years 1 km 3 expected source sensitivity MACRO 8 years N AMANDA 137 days declination (degrees) S AMANDA+16 (2007) GX Antares (2007+) preliminary 2000 data SS-433 Mark. 501 Crab

GRB search in AMANDA Search for  candiates correlated with GRBs - background established from data  317 BATSE triggers (1997—2000)  effective  -area  m 2 low background due to space- time coincidence  No excess observed! assuming WB spectrum 4 x GeV/s/cm 2 /sr analysis continues with non-triggered BATSE and IPN3 data …  <20° PRELIMINARY talk OG 2.4-7

90% upper limits calculated using background levels predicted from data “neutrino = gamma” sensitivity 0.04 km 2 area above 10 TeV Cygnus X-3 0.8SS Cas-A 2.1 Crab Markarian Markarian 421  (10 -8 GeVcm -2 s -1 ) muon (  cm -2 s -1) Source\90% limit Point Sources Amanda II (2000) 0.6

Point source search 2000 AMANDA-II Cuts optimized for each declination bandCuts optimized for each declination band Analysis developed with azimuth- scrambled data for blindnessAnalysis developed with azimuth- scrambled data for blindness 40,000 m 2 area above 10 TeV40,000 m 2 area above 10 TeV 2000 data: Contamination by cosmic ray muons: <10% (above 110 degrees)

AMANDA II 2000

Declination RA(hours)

increasing energy

AMANDA II



 -rays from  0 decay? E N (E ) =  E  N  (E  ) 1 <  < 8 transparentsource  0 =  + =   0 =  + =  - accelerator beam dump (hidden source) flux predictedObserved  -ray flux flux predictedObserved  -ray flux 20 km -2 yr -1 Crab sn remnant 35 km -2 in 97Markarian 501 (9 for p  )

 ~ 

muons/cm 2 s published data preliminary 2000 data Integrated AMANDA + IceCube fluency ~2007 Integrated AMANDA + IceCube fluency ~2007 All sky > PeV All sky > PeV 1 km 3 Expected source sensitivity GX SS-433 MACRO (8 year) N Antares (2007) AMANDA 137 days declination (degrees) S Mark. 501 Crab

AMANDA II Antares

AMANDA-IIANTARES ICEWATER # OF PMTS 600 / 8 INCH 900 / 10 INCH TRANSMISSIONANALOGEDIGITAL HE POINT- SOURCE AREA *40,000 m 2 After all cuts * After all cuts

AMANDA-IIANTARES ICEWATER # OF PMTS 600 / 8 INCH 900 / 10 INCH point source Sensitivity* 2.3** in 200 days 1.2** in 1 year diffuse limit*** 3 in 100 days 1.0 in 1 year *After all cuts and including angular resolution:   lim ( cm -2 s -1 )   lim ( cm -2 s -1 ) ** averaged over declination *** units GeV cm -2 s -1 sr -1 (~2 x Waxman-Bahcall)

Northern hemisphere detectors AntaresNestorBaikal NT m deep data taking since 1998 new: 3 distant strings March 17, strings connected 2400 m deep completion: start 2006 March 29, of 12 floors deployed 4000 m deep completion:

Optical Cerenkov Neutrino Telescope Projects NESTOR Pylos, Greece ANTARES La-Seyne-sur-Mer, France BAIKAL Russia DUMAND Hawaii Hawaii (cancelled 1995) (cancelled 1995) AMANDA, South Pole, Antarctica NEMO Catania, Italy