Why does it rain on us???

 3 cloud properties, 9 ISCCP cloud types  Why do clouds constitute a wildcard for climate change? Competition between greenhouse effect and albedo effect  Convection: 3 types of stability. Two factors limiting the height of clouds Review of last lecture

Satellite observation of precipitation Infrared-derived or visible-derived (GPI) Microwave-derived (MSU, SSM/I, TMI) Radar: Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM) Merged with surface gauge measurements and model forecast

Global distribution of precipitation

Precipitation formation - cloud drop growth Not all clouds precipitate due to their small sizes and slow fall rates Balance between gravity and frictional drag  eventually become equal to achieve terminal velocity V T, which is proportional to the square root of cloud drop radius V T =c r 0.5,where r is drop radius and c is a constant. For a cloud drop to fall, its terminal velocity must exceed the vertical velocity of the upward-moving air parcel. Otherwise it will be carried up. Cloud drop growth is required for precipitation to form F gravity F drag

1.Collision Coalescence (warm clouds, T > 0 C, form rain) 2.Bergeron Process (cool/cold clouds, T < 0 C, form snow) Mechanisms for cloud drops to grow larger Cold CloudsCool Clouds

Process begins with larger collector drops which have higher terminal velocities Collector drops collide with smaller drops and merge with them (coalesce). Coalescence efficiency is generally very high, indicating that most collisions result in the two drops joining. If collector drop is too big: compressed air beneath falling drop forces small drops aside If collector drop is too small (same size as other drops) it will fall at same speed and no collision will occur So, collection efficiency is greatest when the size of collector drop is slightly larger than the size of the other drops After the collector drops become large, the larger one among them can serve as a “super- collector” to collide with other collector drops 1. Collision Coalescence: Growth in Warm Clouds

Determined by competition between surface tension and frictional drag. Frictional drag is larger at the bottom than at the top Small drop (<0.08in): frictional drag << surface tension  Sphere shape Medium-size drop (0.08in<size<0.25in): frictional drag approaches surface tension  Parachute shape Large drop (>0.25in): frictional drag at bottom > surface tension  Split (The surface tension at the top allows the raindrop to remain more spherical while the bottom gets more flattened out.) Maximum drop size of about 0.25in or 5 mm Raindrop shape and maximum size

Video: The Science of Snowflakes

Formation of snow and hails

Clouds are usually composed of: liquid water, super-cooled water, and/or ice (supercooled water exists down to T= -40C !!) Supercooled water can exist at T<0C because ice formation requires ice nuclei, which, unlike condensation nuclei, are rare unless the temp. is very cold Coexistence of ice and super- cooled water is critical to the creation of cool/cold cloud precipitation - the Bergeron Process 2. Bergeron Process: Growth in Cool/Cold Clouds

Key: Saturation vapor pressure of ice < that of super-cooled water at the same temperature. When air is in saturation wrt super-cooled water, it ’ s over- saturated wrt ice - deposition of water vapor over ice. When air is in saturation wrt ice, it ’ s sub-saturated wrt super- cooled water - evaporation of super-cooled water into water vapor. In this way, ice crystals grow rapidly at the expense of super- cooled drops Bergeron Process (cont.)

Bergeron Process usually not enough to produce large enough crystals for preciptation Further growth is due to collisions between falling crystals and drops  riming and aggregation Riming (or Accretion) = liquid water freezing onto ice crystals Aggregation = the joining of ice crystals through the bonding of surface water builds ice crystals, producing snowflakes Collision combined with riming and aggregation allow formation of crystals large enough to precipitate within 1/2 hour of initial formation Further growth: Riming and Aggregation

Shape of snowflakes depend on formation conditions (humidity and temperature) Dendrite ice crystals Plate ice crystal Wilson Bentley, a Vermont farmer, took photographs of snowflakes under a microscope as a hobby. These photographs were published in the "Monthly Weather Review" in 1902.

Shapes/sizes depend on formation conditions (humidity and temperature)

Induce precipitation  injection of dry ice or silver iodide into clouds Convert super-cooled droplets to ice initiate Bergeron process Dry ice (frozen CO2) – lowers temperature to -40C, no ice nuclei are required for water droplets to freeze Silver iodide – acts as ice nuclei at warmer temp (-5C) Effectiveness is debated Cloud Seeding

Summary Forces acting on a cloud/rain droplet. Terminal velocity. How does it change with cloud drop radius? Growth mechanisms for rain and snow (Warm clouds, cool clouds, cold clouds) Formation of rain: coalescence process (the collector is larger than the cloud droplets but not too large) Bergeron process: happens with coexistence of ice and super-cooled water. Key: Saturation vapor pressure of ice < that of super-cooled water at the same temperature. Further growth of ice crystals (riming and aggregation)

Works cited cloud-computing-is-run-on-actual-clouds/ cloud-computing-is-run-on-actual-clouds/ astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/diph2o.htmlhttp://hyperphysics.phy- astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/diph2o.html hotos.htmhttp:// hotos.htm