The Rise and Spread of Islam

Pre-Islamic Society  Bedouin – Arab nomadic people – organized by clan and tribe – Desert dwelling across North Africa and the Arabian peninsula - "I and my brothers against my cousins, I and my brothers and my cousins against the world."  Clan Identity  Shaykhs – leaders of tribes or clans  QURAYSH – dominant tribe of the trade city of Mecca  Umayyad clan – part of the Quraysh tribe – they founded Mecca itself

After the Death of Muhammad  Muhammad’s claim to be a prophet and his attacks on the polytheism of Mecca and the Ka’ba – led the Umayyad leaders of Mecca to move against him.  Muhammad’s defeat of the Umayyads brought the Umayyad under his control as they converted to Islam.  The Umayyad and other prominent clans became the warrior elite of the early Islamic movement. Many sought to conquer rather to convert – initially.  Succession – Muhammad did not name a successor to his religious and political empire when he died in 632 C.E.

Abu Bakr  After the death of Muhammad, some conquered people and new converts began to leave Islam. The clans met after the death to choose a new religious and political leader –Caliph  Muhammad’s son-in-law ALI was deemed too young by many and Muhammad’s friend ABU BAKR was chosen the first caliph.  Ridda Wars – Muslim commanders fought the Arab tribes who had left Islam and forced their return to the fold

Arab Conquests – Arab or Islamic?  The early unification of the Arabs seemed to have little to do with religious conversion and more to do with political conquest.  The Muslim warriors split the booty taken during conquest.  Money was also earned by taxing Christians, Jews, and other non-Muslims.  Many Bedouins joined the Muslims because of the centuries of perceived oppression by their non-Arab conquerors – Byzantines and Persians

Byzantium

Persian (Sassanid) Empire

Muslim interaction with Judaism and Christianity  Islamic attacks on the Byzantine Empire were hindered by the religious fervor of many of the Orthodox Christians in the empire. There were Christians, however, who sought liberation by the Muslims  The Copts of Egypt had been persecuted by their Orthodox rulers after the Egyptian church differed with Constantinople over dogma  The Nestorians of Syria were also attacked by the Orthodox Christians – as the Nestorians believed the human and divine elements of Jesus were separate beings.

Origins of Sunni vs. Shi’a  656 C.E. murder of 3 rd caliph – UTHMAN – had been first Umayyad caliph. Murdered by rebels who questioned his division of conquests, personal hatreds, and old clan rivalries.  ALI claimed the right to be caliph – but angered the Umayyads by not punishing the assassins as the Umayyads thought he should.  Battle of the Camel 656 C.E. – Ali battles the Umayyads and his victories led many Arab fortresses to ally with Ali  Battle of Siffin 657 C.E. – Ali almost defeated the Umayyads when he was persuaded to adopt mediation.

 Ali’s adoption of mediation angered many of his supporters – weakening his forces  The Umayyads were given time to regroup and strengthen  660 MU’AWIYA – new leader of Umayyads - proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem  661 Ali assassinated  HASAN – heir of Ali - pressured by Umayyads to renounce his claim to the caliphate

Who is the true Muslim?  Sunnis – backed the Umayyads  Shi’a – supporters of Ali  HUSAYN second son of Ali – continued the fight against the Umayyad – abandoned by clans in Iraq that had promised support – Husayn was killed at Karbala 680 C.E.

Umayyad Imperium  Massive growth of Arab conquest after the initial Sunni Shi’a wars slowed.  The Umayyads took all of North Africa and crosses the Strait of Gibraltar and moved into Spain  732 Battle of Tours – the MOORS moved into France and challenged the power of the Catholic Church – they were stopped by CHARLES MARTEL at the Battle of Tours  Political shift to DAMASCUS – the Umayyads moved their political capital to Syria after the death of Uthman.

Height of the Umayyad Caliphate

Battle of Tours “romantic” view

People of the Book  MAWALI – Muslim converts – in the early days still had to pay the non-Muslim taxes – were kept from positions of power in the Islamic political, social, or military hierarchy.  JIZYA – head tax paid by non- believers  DHIMMI – “people of the book” – a large portion of the population under Islamic control  In most of the areas controlled by Muslims, the dhimmi and their communities were left largely intact – they were allowed to maintain their identity in society and legal systems.

Umayyad Decline  The Umayyad caliphs grew in power BUT they also became addicted to luxury and extravagant living – palaces, gardens, harems, etc. A division grew between the Umayyad and the Muslim faithful. Their failure to live as Muhammad and Abu Bakr lived gave impetus to many dissident groups to revolt.  In eastern Iran 50,000 warriors had settled and married local women. Over time they began to develop a distinct identity separate from the Umayyads. They also disputed their share of the profits of the caliphate and were angered by the lifestyle of the caliphs in Damascus.  MERV – in the 740s C.E., the Umayyad caliphs sought to reestablish control of eastern Iran by introducing new troops in the area around the city of Merv – this led to rebellion

 ABBASID – marching under the banner of the ABBASID – named after Muhammad's uncle al-Abbas, the frontier warriors led a revolt against the Umayyads.  Led by Abu Al-Abbas – the great-great grandson of Muhammad’s uncle took control of the Abbasids – who led victories over the Umayyad. The Abbasids were allied with the Shi’a – the mawali also allied with the Abbasid because the mawali never felt part of the Umayyad empire.  Battle on the River Zab 750 C.E. – near the Tigris River – the Umayyad caliph was defeated – allowing the Abbasids to conquer Syria and Damascus. Abu al-Abbas invited the leaders of the Umayyad to a “bury the hatchet” dinner. During the dinner – the Umayyad were slaughtered.  Caliphate of Cordoba – last Umayyad stronghold – the grandson of the caliph defeated at the Battle of the River Zab fled to Spain where he established the Caliphate of Cordoba

Abbasid – move from Arabic to Islamic Conquests  With the Umayyad defeat, the Abbasids rejected their Shi’a and mawali allies  A new capital was established at Baghdad with a centralized absolutist rule.  Opulence of Abbasid caliphate  Bureaucracy allowed the Abbasid caliphate to have strong control over its empire.  Wazir – chief administrator – led the growth of infrastructure, trade, taxes, and power

Economic Expansion  Dhows – Arab sailing vessels dotted the Mediterranean and Arabian Seas – economic prosperity and cultural diffusion  Ayan – large land owners – using sharecroppers or migrant labor