Ways to use deep processing Actively question new info Relate info to things you already know Generate own examples of concepts Think about its implications Don’t highlight passages as you read Focus on the ideas in the text

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Which level is more effective in recalling words? Deep processing leads to better recall than shallow processing Percent of words recalled Type of Processing Shallow - Visual Visual (written in capitals?) Acoustic (rhymes with...) Semantic (type of…) Shallow - Acoustic Deep

How Do We Retrieve Memories? Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how they are cued

Implicit and Explicit Memory Implicit Memory Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness or memory of ever having learned them Procedural memories are often implicit, but not always In daily life, people rely on implicit memory in the form of procedural memory….. …the type of memory that allows people to remember how to tie their shoes or ride a bicycle without consciously thinking about these activities.

Implicit and Explicit Memory Explicit Memory Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled For Example: - Answers to a test -Remembering the time of an appointment -Recalling your favorite Christmas

Retrieval Cues Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior Cue Card

 Déjà Vu (French for ‘already seen’)  Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience  "I've experienced this before."

Retrieval Cues Priming Technique for retrieving implicit memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory

Priming If you are presented with the following words: assassin, octopus, avocado, mystery, sheriff, climate

Priming An hour later, you would easily be able to identify which of the following words you had previously seen: twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery

ch_ _ _ _ nk o _ t _ _ _ us _ oog _ y _ _ _ _ l _ m _ te Priming However, an hour later, you would also have a much easier time filling in the blanks of some of these words than others:

Priming While you did not actively try to remember “octopus” and “climate” from the first list, they were primed in the reading, which made them easier to identify in this task chipmunk octopus boogeyman climate

Retrieving Explicit Memories Anything stored in LTM must be “filed” according to its pattern or meaning. So the best way to add material to the LTM is to associate it with material already in the LTM

Recall and Recognition Recall Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information Example: On an essay test, you must create answers entirely from memory with only the help of a few cues.

Recall and Recognition Recognition Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented Example: On a multiple choice test, you only have to identify a previous stimulus (answer)

Other Factors Affecting Retrieval Encoding Specificity Principle The more closely the retrieval clues match the form in which the information was encoded, the better the information will be remembered Example: Test questions need to be presented on a test in a similar context in which they were presented in the class.

Other Factors Affecting Retrieval Mood Congruent Memory A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood A happy moods is likely to trigger happy memories Depression perpetuates itself through the retrieval of depressing memories

TOT (tip of the tongue) Phenomenon The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory. Explained by a poor match between a retrieval cue and the LTM

Watch Tip of the Tongue Learning video on Youtube I8Coiz64 I8Coiz64

Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us? Most of our memory problems arise from memory’s “Seven Sins” – which are really by-products of otherwise adaptive features of human memory

Memory Failure

Transience Absent- Mindedness Blocking MisattributionSuggestibility BiasPersistence Memory’s “Seven Sins”

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Transience Long term memories gradually weaken over time Forgetting Curve A graph plotting the amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little more is forgotten Percent retained Days

Absent-Mindedness Forgetting caused by lapses in attention

Blocking Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved Caused by interference –Proactive interference –Retroactive interference –Serial position effect

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Proactive Interference: Earlier learning interferes with memory for later information Old memories move ‘forward’ in time to block your attempt at new learning Example: When you drive a new far, you still reach for where the radio was in your old car Blocking

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with memory for information learned earlier New material reaches back into your memory to block old material Example: After driving your Mom’s car that has no clutch, you forget to use the clutch when your drive you own car Blocking

Serial Position Effect: Interference related to the sequence in which information is presented …usually items in the middle of a sequence are remembered less than lose first (primacy effect) or last (recency effect) Blocking

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Serial Position Effect Serial Position of Item Probability of Recall Primacy Effect Recency Effect Theoretically, the primacy effect represents recall from long-term memory and the recency effect represents recall from short-term memory.

In a 1966 experiment, subjects were shown a series of 15 words, then tested for their recall of the words immediately or after 30 seconds. When tested immediately, people remembered items at the beginning and end of the series better than those in the middle. Memory for words at the end of the list faded when the test was delayed 30 seconds.

Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what other people around you say.

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Misattribution Memory fault that occurs when memories are retrieved, but they are associated with the wrong time, place, or person The older the memory, the more likely it is to suffer misattribution.

The Challenger Study 1986 Immediately after the Challenger tragedy, researchers at Emory University asked students to write down what they were doing when they heard the news. A year later, the researchers asked the same students to write down their memories of the event again. These later descriptions were riddled with misattributions. But misattributions can be startlingly strong. When told of the discrepancies, the students had trouble believing that their memories were inaccurate. Three years later, when the students were once again asked to recall the Challenger explosion, their recollections were closer to their second accounts.

Suggestibility When external cues distort or create memories Suggestibility refers to false memories that you develop because someone or something gives you some key information at the same time that you’re trying to retrieve a memory.

Suggestibility Imagine that you saw someone fleeing from a car as its antitheft alarm was blaring. You didn’t get a good look at the thief, but another person on the street insisted that it was a man wearing a green plaid jacket. Later, when the police show you photos of possible suspects, you’re confused until you see a man dressed in green plaid coat. Then you point to him.

Suggestibility Misinformation Effect The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation Fabricated Memories False memories created through credible suggestions

Misinformation Effect Loftus and Palmer found in studies that after seeing two cars collide, responses depended heavily upon how the questions were worded….using the word ‘smash’ instead of ‘hit’

Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event. Misinformation Effects Depiction of the actual accident. Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).

Loftus’ and Palmer’s research shows that if false memories (lost at the mall or almost drowning in a lake) are implanted in individuals, they construct (fabricate) these memories

Loftus and Palmer Watch Loftus and Palmer Automobile Destruction video on Youtube ture=related Or ature=related

Memory Construction  Eyewitnesses reconstruct memories when questioned Depiction of actual accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction

Fabricated Memories Repressed or Constructed? Some adults actually do forget childhood episodes of abuse. False Memory Syndrome A condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic experience, which is sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists. =fvwrelhttp:// =fvwrel