Motivation and Emotion

Did You Know That? The founding father of American psychology believed that there is a human instinct for cleanliness. According to a leading psychological theory, if you had to wait in line for hours to purchase tickets for a concert, you would probably rate the event as more enjoyable that you would if the tickets had been easy to come by. A researcher once swallowed a balloon to test the theory that stomach contractions signal hunger. The adult weight of people who were adopted as babies is closer to the weight of their biological parents that to the weight of the parents who raise them. Obese people typically have more fat cells than people of normal weight have. There is no emotion center in the brain Responding without thinking can be a lifesaver in some situations.

?Questions? Why does Lucho play football so intensely? Why do people try to climb Mount Everest or cross the Atlantic in a balloon? Why are some people obsessed with fantasy football or baseball…while others cannot tell you the difference between the Panthers and the Braves? Why do fools fall in love?

Motivation and Emotion Motive Specific need or desire, such as hunger, thirst, or achievement, The urge to move towards one’s goals, to accomplish tasks Emotion Feeling, such as fear, joy, or surprise, that underlies behavior

Motivation Motivation: An internal state that activates behavior and directs it towards a goal. Meaning: In other words, motivation includes various psychological factors that cause you to act a certain way at a certain time. The words anger, fear, pain, starving, etc…can all trigger certain motivations within your body. So how do psychologists attempt to explain these things?

Instincts Inborn, goal-directed behavior that is characteristic of an entire species Human behavior is not easily explained by instincts because Most important human behavior is learned Human behavior is rarely inflexible

Instinct Theory In the 1900’s, William McDougall (1908) proposed that humans were driven by a variety of instincts. Instincts: Are natural or inherited tendencies of an organism to make a specific response to certain environmental stimuli without involving reason. For example, salmon have an instinctive urge to swim thousands of miles through ocean waters and up rivers until they reach the exact gravel spot where they were spawned years earlier. They then lay their eggs and die.

Instinct Theory Psychologist William James proposed that humans have instincts such as cleanliness, curiosity, parental love, sociability, and sympathy. Eventually, psychologists realized a flaw in the Instinct Theory. Instincts do not explain behavior; they simply label behavior.

Drive-Reduction Theory Something that motivates us moves us to an action. The thing that motivates us starts with a need that leads to a drive. Need: Biological or psychological requirement of an organism. A need results from a lack of something that is desirable or useful. We have both physiological and psychological needs.

Drive-Reduction Theory Every need produces a drive. Drive: A state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism towards a goal. We all have different drives with different goals! For example, hunger drives us to eat and fatigue drives us to rest.

Drive – Reduction Theory Drive-Reduction Theory: When an organism is deprived of something it needs or wants (such as food or water), it becomes tense and agitated. To relieve this tension, it engages in more or less random activity. So, biological needs “drive” an organism to act, and the organism strives to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis: The tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state.

The Incentive Theory The drive-reduction theory of motivation emphasizes the internal states of the organism; however, the incentive theory stresses the role of the environment in motivating behavior. While a drive is something inside of us that causes us to act, our actions are directed towards a goal, or an incentive. Incentive: An external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward, that motivates behavior.

The Incentive Theory While drives push us to reduce needs, incentives pull us to obtain them. For example, hunger may cause us to walk into a cafeteria, but the incentive for our action is the sandwich we hope to eat. What is another example of the Incentive Theory?

Cognitive Theory Cognitive Psychologists seek to explain motivation by looking at forces inside and outside of us that energize us to move. They propose that we act in particular ways at particular times as a result of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations. Extrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives. Intrinsic Motivation: Engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations.

Incentives External stimuli that prompt goal-directed behavior We are often unaware of the incentive Examples Aroma of food may cause us to eat even when not hungry Advertisements can lead us to buy a product

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation Motivation for a behavior is the behavior itself Children playing is an example Extrinsic motivation Behavior is performed in order to obtain a reward or to avoid punishment A bonus program is an example

Cognitive Theory Example Example: If you spend hours and hours playing basketball because you wish to excel at the sport, you are following intrinsic motivation! Example: If you hours playing basketball because your parents want you to excel at basketball, you are following extrinsic motivation.

Biological Motives Hunger – What motivates you to seek food? Often you eat because of the sight and smell of, say, pizza makes you want to go to a restaurant. At other times you eat because of habit. For example, if you always eat at 8pm, you become hungry every day around 8pm. Water, Air, etc.

Hunger

Biological Factors Hunger appears to be regulated by regions in the hypothalamus Lateral hypothalamus acts as a feeding center, triggering the onset of eating Ventromedial hypothalamus acts as a satiety center, stopping eating behavior Paraventricular nucleus influences the drive to eat specific foods In addition, areas in cortex and spinal cord also play a role

Biological Factors Changes in blood glucose level, fats, carbohydrates, and insulin signal need for food Leptin, a hormone released by fat cells, can signal satiety Receptors in the stomach and a hormone released by small intestine also signal brain about satiety

Cultural and Environmental Factors Responses to food are governed by learning and social conditioning For example, time of day can trigger the body to become hungry Culture also influences what we choose to eat and how much we consume

Eating Disorders Anorexia nervosa About 1% of adolescents afflicted Intense fear of weight gain Distorted body image Refusal to maintain minimal normal body weight Absence of at least three consecutive menstrual cycles (for women) About 1% of adolescents afflicted Approximately 90% of those are white upper- and middle-class females

Eating Disorders Bulimia nervosa Recurrent episodes of binge eating Recurrent behaviors to prevent weight gain, such as self-induced vomiting Behaviors must occur at least twice a week for three months Body shape and weight overly influence self-image Symptoms occur independent of anorexia About 1-2% of female adolescents afflicted Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are the most common eating disorders in more affluent nations

Obesity Considered by U.S. Surgeon General to be the most pressing health problem today Obesity can lead to increased risk for Hypertension Cardiovascular disease Diabetes Sleep apnea Tendency may be inherited

Thirst

Thirst Both internal and external cues can trigger the thirst drive Internal cues include level of fluids inside body cells and amount of fluids outside body cells External cues can include advertisements and weather conditions

Social Motives Measuring need based solely on achievement. I need the approval of certain people or groups. Fear of Failure Fear of Success

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs According to Abraham Maslow, there are 3 basic types of needs: Fundamental Needs: Biological drives that must be satisfied to maintain life. Psychological needs: The urge to belong and give and receive love, and the urge to acquire esteem. Self-Actualization Needs: The pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever is required for the realization of one’s unique potential.

Emotions

Basic Emotions Plutchik proposed that there are eight basic emotions Fear Surprise Sadness Disgust Anger Anticipation Joy Acceptance

Plutchik’s Basic Emotions

Basic Emotions Some have criticized Plutchik’s model as applying only to English-speakers Revised model of basic emotions includes: Happiness Surprise Sadness Fear Disgust Anger

Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory Cannon-Bard theory Environmental stimuli bring on physiological changes that we interpret as emotions Cannon-Bard theory Environmental stimuli elicit emotions and bodily responses simultaneously Cognitive theory Environment gives us clues that help us interpret physiological reaction

Theories of Emotion

Nonverbal Communication of Emotion Voice quality Facial expression Body language Posture and the way we move communicates information Personal space Explicit acts For example, slamming doors

Emotions What drives Michael Jordan to perfect his basketball game? How did he feel when he hit all of those winning shots? Was he tired, thirsty, excited, nervous, or happy? It is very difficult to draw a clear line between motives and Emotions. So what are the differences? Well, let’s take a look shall we.

Emotion Emotion: A set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and observable behavior. See Page 329 in your text for a chart of the full range of emotions.

James – Lange Theory Both William James and Carl Lange came to the conclusion at about the same time that “we use the word emotion to describe our visceral, or gut, reactions to the things that take place around us. Because they came up with this theory at the same time, it was named the James-Lange Theory.

The Cannon – Bard Theory The Cannon – Bard Theory: According to this theory, certain experiences activate the thalamus, and the thalamus sends messages to the cortex and to the other body organs. The theory states that the brain sends two reactions – arousal and the experience of emotion. Yet, one does not cause the other. So, when we use the word emotion, we are referring to the simultaneous burst of activity in the brain and gut reactions.

More about the various Theories See Text Page 335 for more info!

Arousal Theory People are motivated to seek an optimal level of arousal for a given moment Yerkes-Dodson law States that there is an optimal level or arousal for best performance on any task The more complex the task, the lower the level of arousal that can be tolerated without interfering with performance

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Sexual Motivation

Biological Factors Testosterone Pheromones Important in both men and women in early development Not very important for regulating sexual activity in humans Pheromones Scents secreted which can promote sexual readiness, particularly in animals

Cultural and Environmental Factors Human sexual motivation is much more dependent on experience and learning than on biology Men are very responsive to visual stimuli Women respond better to touch Culture can influence what is sexually attractive

Human Sexual Response Cycle Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution

Sexual Orientation Refers to the direction of an individual’s sexual interest Heterosexual Sexual attraction to other gender Homosexual Sexual attraction to same gender Bisexual Sexual attraction to both genders Examination of causes of differing orientations is a nature-nurture debate

Other Motives Exploration and curiosity Manipulation and contact Aggression Intent is a key element of aggression Aggressive behavior may be innate, although learning clearly plays a role Aggression and culture Gender and aggression Males are more physically aggressive

Other Motives Achievement Affiliation Motivation to excel at a task Desire is for achievement for its own sake Affiliation Motivation to be with others

Gender, Culture and Emotion

Gender and Emotion Men and women feel emotions equally, but express them differently Men and women may experience different emotions in the same situation Anger Men tend to direct their anger outward Women tend to direct their anger inward Women are more skilled at understanding nonverbal components of emotion

Culture and Emotion Expression of emotion can be influenced by cultural norms Some emotional displays are universal Display rules Culture-specific rules that govern how, when, and why expressions of emotion are appropriate