Chapter 16 Social Psychology

Chapter 16 Preview Constructing Social Reality The Power of the Situation Attitudes, Attitude Change, and Action

Chapter 16 Preview Prejudice Social Relationships Aggression, Altruism, and Prosocial Behavior Recapping Main Points

Social Psychology Social Psychology Studies effect of social variables on individual behavior, attitudes, perceptions, and motives also studies group and intergroup phenomena

Constructing Social Reality Social Cognition Process by which people select, interpret, and remember social information Social Perception Process by which people come to understand and categorize the behaviors of others

Origins of Attribution Theory Describes ways social perceiver uses information to generate causal explanations

Origins of Attribution Theory Fritz Heider People are intuitive psychologists Dispositional causes Situational causes

Origins of Attribution Theory Harold Kelly Covariation model Dimensions of information Distinctiveness Consistency Consensus Covariation principle People should attribute behaviors to a causal factor if the factor is present whenever the behavior occurred but was absent when it did not occur

Fundamental Attribution Error Lee Ross Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE) Tendency to underestimate impact of situational factors and overestimate influence of dispositional factors Partially due to cultural sources Independent construals of self/Western Interdependent construal of self/Eastern

Ratings of Questioners’ and Contestants’ General Knowledge Figure 16.1, page 448

Taking credit for successes and denying responsibility for failures Self-serving Biases Self-Serving Bias Taking credit for successes and denying responsibility for failures Influenced by culture

Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Prediction modifies interactions so as to produce what is expected Behavioral Confirmation People behave in ways that elicit specific expected reactions and then use those reactions to confirm their beliefs

The Power of the Situation Social Role Social-defined pattern of behavior Rule Behavioral guideline for acting in certain way at certain time Social Norms Expectation group has for its members

Conformity Conformity Tendency for people to adopt behaviors, attitudes, and values of other members of group

Guard and Prisoner Behavior Figure 16.2, page 453

Information Influence Conformity Influence Information Influence Normative Influence Information Influence Sherif’s autokinetic effect Norm crystallization Normative Influence Asch effect

Conformity in the Asch Experiment Figure 13.3, page 455

Conformity Minority Influence and Nonconformity Serge Moscovici and colleagues More informational influence and less normative influence

Decision Making in Groups Group Polarization Tendency of groups to make more extreme decisions then decisions that would be made by members acting alone Two underlying process Information-influence Social comparison

Groupthink Groupthink Irving Janis Tendency of decision making group to filter out undesirable input so that consensus may be reached

Groupthink Factors leading to Groupthink: High level of group cohesiveness Isolation of group from outside information or influences Dynamic, influential leader High stress from external threats

Obedience to Authority Obedience paradigm To shock or not to shock? Why do people obey authority? Test situation To shock or not to shock? Demand characteristics Why do people obey authority? Normative and informational sources of information

Obedience in Milgram’s Experiments Figure 16.4 here, page 459

Attitudes, Attitude Change, and Action Positive or negative evaluation of people, objects, and ideas Cognitive Affective Behavioral Predictability of attitudes influenced by accessibility

Processes of Persuasion Elaboration Likelihood Model How likely people will focus their cognitive process to elaborate on persuasive message Central routes Peripheral routes

Persuasion By Your Own Actions Dissonance Theory Cognitive Dissonance Leon Festinger Conflict experienced after making decision, taking action, or being exposed to information that is contrary to prior beliefs, feelings, or values

Persuasion By Your Own Actions Self-perception Theory Daryl Bem People observe themselves to discover why they act as they do

Compliance Reciprocity Reciprocity norm Compliance Change in behavior consistent with direct request Compliance Techniques Reciprocity Commitment Reciprocity Reciprocity norm

Prejudice Prejudice How do you define prejudice? Learned attitude towards target object, involving negative feelings, negative beliefs that justify attitude and behavioral intention to avoid, control, dominate, or eliminate those in target group Kenneth Clark

Social Categorization Origins of Prejudice Process by which people organize their social environment by categorizing themselves and others into groups In-group Out-groups Social Categorization In-group Group with which a person identifies Out-groups Group with which a person does not identify

In-group bias Origins of Prejudice Evaluation of one’s own group as better then others In-group bias

Origins of Prejudice Racism Sexism

Effects of Stereotypes Generalizations about group of people in which same characteristics are assigned to all members of group Stereotypes encode expectations People use stereotypical behaviors to produce behavioral confirmation

Effects of Stereotypes Expectations encoding Behavior confirmations Stereotype threat (IQ testing)

Implicit Prejudice Implicit Prejudice Prejudice that exists outside an individual’s conscious awareness Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Robbers Cave Experiment Reversing Prejudice Reversing Prejudice Muzafer Sherif Robbers Cave Experiment Elliott Aronson Contact hypothesis Contact hypothesis Program combating prejudice must foster personal interaction in pursuit of shared goals

Physical attractiveness Similarity Reciprocity Loving Social Relationships Liking Physical attractiveness Similarity Reciprocity Loving Passion Intimacy Commitment

Factors in Lasting Relationships Close relationship Feeling that “other” is included in “self” Individuals differences in ability to sustain lasting, loving relationships Adult attachment styles

Psychology in Your Life In what ways are you like a chameleon? Why do Chartrand and Bargh speculate that mimicry functions as a kind of social glue? For more information, read the study on page 473 of your text.

Aggression, Altruism, and Prosocial Behavior Behavior that cause psychological or physical harm to another individual

Aggression Situational Influences Individual Differences Impulsive Aggression Instrumental Aggression Situational Influences Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis Direct Provocation and Escalation

Reciprocal Altruism Altruism Altruism Altruism Prosocial behaviors without consideration for self safety or interests

Bystander Intervention Bystander must notice emergency label events as emergency feel responsibility

Roots of Prosocial Behavior Forces that prompt people to act for public good Altruism Egoism Collectivism Principlism C. Daniel Batson

Effects of the Situation on Prosocial Behavior Bystander Intervention Bib Latané and John Darley Willingness to assist person in need Diffusion of Responsibility Larger number of bystanders, less responsibility any one bystander feels to help

Recapping Chapter 16 Main Points Origins of Attribution Theory Fundamental Attribution Error Self-Serving Biases Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Behaviors that Confirm Expectations Constructing Social Reality

Recapping Chapter 16 Main Points Attribution Theory Fundamental Attribution Error Self-Serving Bias Self-Fulfilling Prophecies Constructing Social Reality

Recapping Chapter 16 Main Points Attitudes and Behaviors Processes of Persuasion Persuasion by Your Own Actions Compliance Attitudes, Attitude Change, and Action Origins of Prejudice Effects of Stereotypes Reversing Prejudice Prejudice

Recapping Chapter 16 Main Points Liking Loving Social Relationships Individual Differences Situational Influences Roots of Altruism Effects of the Situation on Prosocial Behavior Aggression, Altruism, and Prosocial Behavior