Definitions Mycologists--scientists who study fungi Mycology--scientific discipline dealing with fungi Mycoses--diseases caused in animals by fungi

What is a fungus? A eukaryotic, heterotrophic organism devoid of chlorophyll that obtains its nutrients by absorption, and reproduces by spores. The primary carbohydrate storage product of fungi is glycogen. Most fungi have a thallus composed of hyphae (sing. hypha) that elongate by tip growth

The fungal thallus consists of hyphae; a mass of hyphae is a mycelium.

Structure of fungi

The Characteristics of Fungi Fungi are NOT plants Hyphae = tubular units of construction Heterotrophic by absorption Reproduce by spores Ecologically pivotal roles

Hyphae Tubular Hard wall of chitin Cross walls may form compartments (± cells) Multinucleate Grow at tips Chitin is the same material used by Arthropods (Insects, crabs, etc.) in their exoskeletonsa Nuclei of fungi are hard to see without stains

Heterotrophic by Absorption Fungi get carbon from organic sources Hyphal tips release enzymes Enzymatic breakdown of substrate Products diffuse back into hyphae Product diffuses back into hypha and is used Enzymatic breakdown Products Nucleus hangs back and “directs” Most enzyme release (and absorption) at tips Proteins and other materials synthesized by the entire mycelium are channeled by cytoplasmic streaming to the tips of the extending hyphae. Enzymes

Modifications of hyphae

Only the tip wall is plastic and stretches Hyphal growth Hyphae grow from their tips Mycelium = extensive, feeding web of hyphae Mycelia are the ecologically active bodies of fungi This wall is rigid Only the tip wall is plastic and stretches

Hyphal growth from spore Fungal mycelia can be huge, but they usually escape notice because they are subterranean. One giant individual of Armillaria ostoyae in Oregon is 3.4 miles in diameter and covers 2,200 acres of forest, It is at least 2,400 years old, and weighs hundreds of tons. (Actually noone has seen this of this extent – but cultures have been taken from soil over that area and all isolates have been found to be the same individual) Ten cubic centimeters of rich organic soil may have fungal hyphae with a surface area of over 300 cm2 germinating spore mycelium

Reproduce by spores Spores are reproductive cells Sexual Asexual Pilobolus sporangia Reproduce by spores Spores are reproductive cells Sexual Asexual Formed: Directly on hyphae Inside sporangia Fruiting bodies Penicillium hyphae Fungi reproduce by releasing spores that are produced either sexually or asexually. The output of spores from one reproductive structure is enormous, with the number reaching into the trillions. Dispersed widely by wind or water, spores germinate to produce mycelia if they land in a moist place where there is food. Amanita fruiting body

Kingdom Fungi Nutritional Type Chemoheterotroph Multicellularity All, except yeasts Cellular Arrangement Unicellular, filamentous, fleshy Food Acquisition Method Absorptive Characteristic Features Sexual and asexual spores Embryo Formation None

Fungi are ancient Major fungal lineages are ancient, perhaps emerging one billion years ago Fungi were present before the emergence of animals and vascular plants

Old and Modern Classification Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778) the “Father of Taxonomy” “ Minerals exist; plants exist and live; animals exist, live and sense.” Plants without obvious sexual organs were classified in Class Cryptogamia (lichens, fungi, mosses, ferns) Fungi are primitive (asli) plants under this classification of organisms.

Old Classification The Five kingdom system Eukarya (includes all organism with a nucleus & membrane bound organelles) Plants and Animals are fairly obvious (ketara) Fungi, are very distinct (berlainan) from the other kingdoms Kingdom Protista is a “dumping ground” for organisms that don’t fit into the other eukaryotic kingdoms (Whittaker, 1969)

Modern Classification At least 7 kingdoms are now recognized: Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, Animalia, Plantae, Eumycota, Stramenopila (Chromista), Protoctista (Protozoa, Protista)

Systems of classifying fungi 1) 1860 HOGG proposed the term PROTOCTISTA - fungi and neither Plant or Animal. This kingdom composed mostly of unicellular organisms. The kingdom was later replaced by 2 kingdoms – MYCOTA & MONERA (prokaryotes) and PROTOCTISTA(eukaryotes). 2) 1947 Microscopes enable study of complex structural characteristics. New classification (WOLF & WOLF, 1947) 3) 1969 Fungi in its own kingdom by WHITTAKER – FUNGI KINGDOM.

Systems of classifying fungi 4) 1998 Modification by MARGUILIS & SCHWARTZ – used characteristics (structure & function). MONERA: Prokaryotes – bacteria, actinomycetes, blue-green algae. PROTOCTISTA: Eukaryotes – protozoa and other unicellular and colonial organisms such as water moulds, slime moulds and slime nets. FUNGI : Eukaryotes – organisms that lack flagella that develop from spores such as yeast, molds, rusts and mushrooms. PLANTAE: Eukaryotes – organisms that develop from embryos such as liverworts, mosses and vascular plants. ANIMALIA: Eukaryotes – organisms that develop from a blastula (hollow ball of cells) such a sponges, worms, arthropods and mammals.

MARGUILIS & SCHWARTZ(1998) Classify the fungi into 3 phyla : Zygomycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Chytrids (CHYTRIDIOMYCOTA) in the Kingdom Proctista. Deuteromycota with their closest relatives that are the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. Lichen with the Phylum Ascomycota.

Other classifications MOORE, 1998 (quoted from Pfieffer, M., et al., 2001) states that plants, animals and fungi can be separated based on how they obtain energy. Plants possess (memiliki) chloroplasts as photosynthetic structures used to produce food. Animals possess mitochondria used for internalized digestion. Fungi excrete enzymes into the food source they live within external digestion.

Classification using molecular research techniques BALDAUF & PALMER (1993), WAINWRIGHT et al. (1993) and HASEGAWA et al (1993) The above current schemes agree that the three major kingdoms are separated and thereby confirmed that there are no connection between the fungi-plant kingdom.

KINGDOM CHARACTERISTIC EXAMPLE   Monera Prokaryocyte Bacteria Actinomyces Protista Eukaryocyte Protozoa Fungi Eukaryocyte * Plants Moss Animals Arthropods Mammals Man

Question 2 Fill in the blanks of the systematic of classification 1) Kingdom 2) Division / Phylum 3) ___________ 4) Order 5) ___________ 6) Tribe 7) ___________ 8) Species Sometimes there are subdivisions and subclasses

Hierarchical Classification Kingdom Fungi Phylum Basidiomycota Class Basidiomycetes Order Agaricales Family Agaricaceae Genus Agaricus Species: Agaricus campestris L.

Fungus versus Fungi “Fungus” is used inclusively for a heterogenous group of organisms that have traditionally been studied by mycologists “Fungi” refers to the organisms in the Kingdom Fungi, the true fungi, also called the “Eumycota”

How are fungi named? To determine the correct name for a taxon, certain steps must be followed, including: Effective publication Valid publication Description or diagnosis in Latin Clear indication of rank Designated type

Nomenclature Nomenclature: the “allocation (pemberian bahagian) of scientific names to the units a systematist considers to merit formal recognition.” (Hawksworth et al., 1995. The Dictionary of the Fungi).  The nomenclature of fungi is governed by the International Code for Botanical Nomenclature, as adopted by the International Botanical Congress.

How many species of fungi exist? - 80,000 species of fungi described - 1,700 new species described each year

How many species of fungi exist? - 80,000 species of fungi described - 1,700 new species described each year

Reasons why it is not easy to classify fungi Fungi comprise (mengandungi) of a broad number of organisms. Fungi have various forms depending on the environment and conditions in which they grow. Many terms being used to describe the morphological structures of fungi.

Basic Characteristics and Life Cycles Ascomycota (inc.Deuteromycetes) Basidiomycota Zygomycota Mitosporic Fungi (Fungi Imperfecti) Molecular studies indicate that animals, not plants, are the closest relatives of fungi. Both Animals and Fungi are related most closely to a group of Protists known as the choanoflagellates (collar flagellates) Kingdom began in ocean during Precambrian (Late Proterozoic era) More than 100,000 species of fungi are known and mycologists estimate that there are actually about 1.5 million species worldwide.

Ascomycota – “sac fungi” Teleomorphic fungi Produce sexual and asexual spores Sex. – asci Asex. – common Cup fungi, morels, truffles Important plant parasites & saprobes Yeast - Saccharomyces Septate Most lichens Mycologists have described over 60,000 species of ascomycetes, or sac fungi. Ascomycota tend to grow from spore to spore in one year and relate well to living plant tissues There is diverse form in the growth and fruiting structures – yeasts to morels, many intermediate (and small) Asexual reproduction by conidia (externally produced, not in sporangia) Half of the Ascomycota form lichens (evolved 8 or more times in different orders) but not all lichens are Ascomycotes A cluster of asci with spores inside

Basidiomycota – “club fungi” Produce basidiospores and sometimes conidiospores Sex – basidia Asex – not so common Long-lived dikaryotic mycelia Rusts & smuts – primitive plant parasites Septate Mushrooms, polypores, puffballs Enzymes decompose wood Mycorrhizas Asexual spores conidia Ecologically important on wood as decomposers and parasites Half the mushrooms form mycorrhizas SEM of basidia and spores

Zygomycota – “zygote fungi” Conjugation fungi Coenocytic Sex - zygosporangia Asex - common Produce sporangiospores and zygospores Hyphae have no cross walls Grow rapidly Rhizopus, Mucor (opportunistic, systemic mycoses) Mycorrhizas Most of the 600 zygomycote, or zygote fungi, are terrestrial, living in soil or on decaying plant and animal material. Asexual reproduction in sporangia One zygomycote group form mycorrhizas, mutualistic associations with the roots of plants. Fig 31.6 Rhizopus on strawberries

Fig 31.5 Chytridium growing on spores True Fungi Chytridiomycota – “chytrids”- Classified in CMR as true fungi (because of their molecular relationships) Simple fungi Produce motile spores Mostly saprobes and parasites in aquatic habitats Could just as well be Protists Classified in CMR as true fungi (because of their molecular relationships) Remainder of the phyla are almost exclusively terrestrial (a few molds on wet plant material) Fig 31.5 Chytridium growing on spores

True Fungi versus Slime Moulds those that are hyphal possess cell walls throughout most of their life cycle are exclusively absorptive in their nutrition. Slime moulds: - those that do not form hyphae - lack cell walls during the phase that they obtain nutrients and grow are capable of ingesting nutrients by phagocytosis. So they are more common to Protista although they produce fruiting bodies like fungi. The most studied of them are the cellular slime moulds and the plasmodial slime moulds or Myxomycetes.

QUESTION The fungus can never be classified in Plantae or Animalia? EXPLAIN WHY? (Hint ! LOOK AT ITS MOBILITY & NUTRITION)