EXPLORING PSYCHOLOGY EIGHTH EDITION IN MODULES David Myers PowerPoint Slides Aneeq Ahmad Henderson State University Worth Publishers, © 2011

2 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Thinking Module 22 3

4 Concepts Solving Problems  Obstacles to Problem Solving

5 Making Decisions and Forming Judgments  Using and Misusing Heuristics  Overconfidence  THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: The Fear Factor—Do We Fear the Right Things?  The Belief Perseverance Phenomena  The Perils and Powers of Intuition  The Effects of Framing

6 Thinking Cognition refers to all the mental processes associated with thinking, knowing, understanding, remembering, and communicating. Cognitive psychologists study these activities.

7 Concepts A concept is a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. There are a variety of chairs but their common features define the concept of a chair. We often form concepts by developing prototypes - mental images or best examples that incorporates all the features we associate with a category. It takes a bit longer to categorize a penguin as a bird because it does not closely match the prototype.

8 Solving Problems Problem solving strategies include: 1.Trial and Error 2.Algorithms 3.Heuristics 4.Insight

9 Algorithms Algorithms, which are time consuming, exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a solution. Computers use algorithms. S P L O Y O C H Y G If we were to unscramble these letters to form a word using an algorithmic approach, we would face 907,200 possibilities.

10 Heuristics Heuristics are simple, thinking strategies that allow us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently. Heuristics are less time consuming, but more error-prone than algorithms. B2M Productions/Digital Version/Getty Images

11 Insight Insight involves a sudden novel realization of a solution to a problem. Humans and animals have insight. Brain imaging and EEG studies suggest that when an insight strikes (the “Aha” experience), it activates the right temporal cortex (Jung- Beeman & others, 2004).

12 Obstacles to Problem Solving Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias. 2 – 4 – 6 Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 – 2 – 3 would comply. Wason’s students had difficulty figuring out the rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960).

13 Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective, impeding problem solving. One example is a mental set, a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way. Sometimes, a mental set based on what worked in the past precludes our finding a new solution to a new problem. Obstacles to Problem Solving

14 The Matchstick Problem Our mental set from our past experiences with matchsticks predisposes our arranging them in two dimensions. To arrange six matches to form four equilateral triangles, you must view the problem from a new perspective.

15 Making Decision & Forming Judgments Psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman (1974) researched the representativeness and availability heuristics and showed how these generally helpful shortcuts can lead even the smartest people into dumb decisions. Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman

16 Probability that that person is a truck driver is far greater than an ivy league professor just because there are more truck drivers than such professors. Representativeness Heuristic Judging the likelihood of things or objects in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, a particular prototype is using the representativeness heuristic. If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glasses and likes poetry, what do you think his profession would be? An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?

17 Availability Heuristic Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray? Whatever increases the ease of retrieving information increases its perceived availability. When statistical reality is pitted against a single vivid case, the memorable case often wins.

18 The Fear Factor – Do We Fear the Right Things? Due to the nature of fear, the 9/11 attacks lead many to fear flying more than driving, consequently, more people died in traffic accidents.

19 Overconfidence Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, and the inclination to explain failures increase our overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

20 The Belief Perseverance Phenomenon Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence. It often fuels social conflict. If you see that a country is hostile, you are likely to interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of hostility.

21 Perils & Powers of Intuition Intuition, an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, may be perilous if unchecked, but may also be extremely efficient and adaptive. Experienced chick sexers often feel as if they are working on intuition.

22 The Effects of Framing Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed, or presented. Example: What is the best way to market ground beef — as 25% fat or 75% lean?