Problem Solving 8.2

Algorithms and Heuristics Different problems must be approached in different ways – first we must identify the type of problem

Algorithms When used properly will always lead you to the answer –Formulas in math Figuring diameter of a circle –Systematic Searches –Practicality

Heuristics Ha__ __ man –Around 300 possibilities! Phone numbers Heuristics – rules of thumb –Wheel of Fortune Likelihood of letters »Heuristics are faster but less reliable

Problem Solving Methods Trial and Error Difference Reduction –Problem A (Fig. 8-1) A Step Backward Means-End Analysis –Certain things we can do (means) will have certain results (ends) –Break the problem into parts

PSM Working Backward –Identifying the goal first Analogies –Archimedes and the crown – “Eureka!”

1.) BIRD : NEST :: (A) dog : doghouse (B) squirrel : tree (C) beaver : dam (D) cat : litter box (E) book : library 2.) DALMATIAN : DOG :: (A) oriole : bird (B) horse : pony (C) shark : great white (D) ant : insect (E) stock : savings 3.) DOCTOR : HOSPITAL :: (A) sports fan : stadium (B) cow : farm (C) professor : college (D) criminal : jail (E) food : grocery store 4.) CUB : BEAR :: (A) piano : orchestra (B) puppy : dog (C) cat : kitten (D) eagle : predator (E) fork : utensil 5.) TENET : THEOLOGIAN :: (A) predecessor : heir (B) hypothesis : biologist (C) recluse : rivalry (D) arrogance : persecution (E) guitarist : rock band

Answers C A C B

Insight and Incubators Insight – sudden understanding –Sometimes the answers reveal themselves to us without much conscious awareness –Light bulb Effect –Incubation Effect –Kohlers Chimps Boxes, sticks, and bananas –Insight and jokes –Extreme problems and incubation

Obstacles Mental Set – our minds become fixed on a a solution process that has worked previously Functional Fixedness – Think of objects in the way they are usually used

Problem Solving and Creativity Convergent Thinking – Narrowing of the mind to find the single best solution Divergent Thinking – Associating freely to various elements, following “leads”

ABCDE’s of Problem Solving Assess Brainstorm Choose the approach Do it Evaluate

Reasoning Reasoning – using information to reach conclusions –Deductive Reasoning – The conclusion is true if the premises are true Premise – Idea or statement that provides information that allows us to draw conclusions –Inductive Reasoning – We reason from individual cases or particular facts to reach a conclusion Sometimes, said conclusion is wrong

Inductive Reasoning Confirmation Bias – we spend time trying to prove a hypotheses true, rather than false »Things must be looked at from different angles and approaches to be proven

Decision Making Weighing the pluses and minuses –Balance sheets of pros and cons You must take your abilities into account

Shortcuts …just another word for heuristics, and I mean, seriously, who didn’t already know that? You didn’t? Really? Did you read the section? You did? Are you sure? Yeah, I kind of thought so…or…I’m sorry you didn’t remember that part.

Representativeness Heuristic T/F Quiz –What represents a random sequence? Making decisions about a sample based on the population that the sample appears to represent

Availability Heuristic Making decisions based on what is available to your immediate consciousness –Overestimations of the occurrence of events

Anchoring Heuristic Making decisions based on certain standards or ideas they hold –Common anchors – religion, politics –Making adjustments to anchors

Framing Effect How wording affects decision making –Lite v. Thin –Pro v. Anti

Overconfidence Why do people tend to be overconfident even when they are wrong?