PSY 338: Motivation Chapter 8: Cognitive Motivation: Expectancy-Value Approaches

Early philosophers provided cognitive explanations Plato argued that we perceive to be right based on our ideas of what is right He felt that we are motivated to maximize virtue which we determine by our thoughts Plato (424/423–348/347 BCE)

Tolman’s Purposive Behavior Argued for a holistic study of behavior Molar Behavior: Studying behavior as a whole rather than component parts Edward Tolman (1886-1959)

Characteristics of Molar Behavior Tolman (1932) Behavior directed toward or away from some specific goal: Persistent - continue until the goal is obtained Consistent pattern of responses - not random Selective - shortest / easiest path

Purpose & Cognition Tolman (1932) The three characteristics of molar behavior imply that an organism has some knowledge about the goals towards which its behavior is leading Purposive - observed not inferred; Objectively defined by the behaviors observed Learned vs. Performed - learning occurs in absence of behavioral change; motivation activates learning/translates to performance We expect that a particular behavior in the future will lead to our goal Example: Author’s “cognitive cat”

Purpose & Cognition Tolman (1932) Cognitive Map - where goals may be found He did not believe in stimulus response approaches No chain of responses needed Organism has a general sense about where reinforcement can be found; not a series of responses to reach a goal The concept of a cognitive map suggests that organisms acquire expectations both that behavior will be rewarded and that the reward can be found in specific locations Tolman argued that place learning is the more usual way in which animals learn

Purpose & Cognition The Great Debate: Behaviorists vs. Cognitivists Learning takes place in the mind, not in behavior The formation of mental representations of the elements of a task and the discovery of how these elements are related Forming a cognitive map of the environment (Tolman, 1948) Learning the correct place Behaviorists Learning involves the formation of associations between specific actions and specific events (stimuli) in the environment (Hull, 1949) Learning the correct response

Purpose & Cognition In one experiment, after rats received the reward on their right, the researchers simply rotated a maze Tolman’s theory (place) would predict that the rats would check their cognitive map for the location of the maze within the room, and make a left turn to compensate for the change in starting position Hull’s theory (response) would predict rats would make a right turn as they have been trained to do Maze Arrangements for Testing Place vs. Response Learning

Purpose & Cognition Tolman, Ritchie, & Kalish (1946) Procedures Lab rats conditioned to getting the reward on their right, then researchers rotated the maze Used maze with flat alleys, no walls, and elevated Distinctive features in the room were clearly seen from the maze Results Rats made left turn Interpretation Specific environmental cues encourage cognitive learning; responses or cognitive maps may be learned; rats and people are flexible in their use of whatever cues are available

Force Field Theory Lewin (1936) Another molar approach to understanding motivation Homeostatic cognitive model of motivation Dynamic approach that emphasized that forces acting to initiate behavior are constantly changing He posits that several forces are simultaneously exerting their influence on us

Force Field Theory Lewin (1936) Reaction of an object is the result of all forces acting on that object w/in a field Tension: Need to reach homeostasis

Force Field Theory Lewin’s (1938) Theory is based on Gestaltist notions and the idea that behavior is a function of both the person and the environment [B = f ( P, E)] Life space = a person’s psychological reality that contains different regions of the person and his perceptions of the environment Motivation occurs because regions associated with particular needs/goals are in tension until the goals are achieved. Valence or relative attractiveness influence the level of tension and thus the level of motivation to eliminate the tension Lewin’s notions of B=f(P,E) and of valence and potency are important to current expectancy-based motivation theories

The Zeigarnik Effect State of tension will continue to motivate until behavior associated with task is completed Easier to remember unfinished tasks than completed ones

Expectancy-Value Theory Combination of individual needs and value of goals available in environment Depends on: 1. Value of goal for individual 2. Expectancy of obtaining goal

Expectancy-Value Theory Motivation as a joint function of the value people place on an outcome, and the extent to which they believe they can attain it i.e., we are driven to attain goals that matter a lot to us but also one’s we believe we can accomplish

Expectancy-Value Theory Expectancy-Value theory says that motivation is governed by two things: The expectancy of success The value of that success Values of the goal interpreted in terms of costs in pursuing the goal

Expectancy-Value Theory Begins with the idea that everyone has a need for achievement, but in different amounts People are motivated to engage in an activity to the extent that they expect to succeed times the value they place on the success Combination of task value and expectation for success Both high: persistence, great effort expended, motivation for learning Both low: refuse to participate, no motivation to learn

Expectancy-Value Theory Task value Attainment value Intrinsic or interest value Utility value Authentic tasks

Expectancy-Value Theory Cost Cost refers to what a person gives up to engage in a task. For example, if Jennifer studies for her French test, she has less time to participate in other activities. If the cost is too high, a person may avoid the activity.

Social Learning Theory Social Learning Theory incorporates: Internal Factors: expectancies & values External Factors: social situations Rotter (1954) Four Basic Concepts: 1. Reinforcement Value (Desirability) – Relative 2. Subjective Estimates (Expectations) 3. Situational Factors (Based on prior experience) 4. Generalized Expectations (Prior experience) Julian Rotter (1916-2014)

Social Learning Theory Locus of Control Internal / External control of reinforcement Click on picture  Rotter (1954)

Bandura’s Social Learning Theory Reciprocal Determinism: person, environment, and behavior all interact Incentives: Direct, vicarious, & self-reinforcing Most learning occurs through observing others (modeling) and consequences to them (vicarious reinforcement) Albert Bandura 88 years old

Expectancy-Value Theory and the Need for Achievement Murray (1938) Needs The recurrent concern for a goal state and believed that a need consists of two components Directional Energizing drive 20 manifest needs Achievement, autonomy, dominance, understanding, nurturant Other needs were latent but could also lead to achievement motivation Henry Murray (1893-1988)

Expectancy-Value Theory and the Need for Achievement Murray(1938) Defined achievement motivation as: A desire for significant accomplishment, for mastering skills or ideas, for control over things or people, and for rapidly attaining a high standard of excellence The desire to do things well and feel pleasure in overcoming obstacles

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) McClelland & Atkinson (1948) Felt that important motives of an individual could be assessed by analyzing stories developed from mostly ambiguous pictures Certain themes could be determined through content analysis

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) McClelland & Atkinson (1948) Procedure Arranged to have men on a submarine base go varying lengths of time without food Deception used Asked to looked at slides of various scenes that might suggest food seeking or eating and then write stories about the picture Results Length of food deprivation correlated to the amount of food imagery found in their stories Interpretation Motive states were reflected in the interpretations of the TAT pictures

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell (1953) TAT consists of a series of ambiguous figures Participants task is to make up a story from the picture Reliability and validity questionable Remains popular and one of the most frequently used test by clinical psychologists Test measures latent motivations Apperception is the process of projecting imagery onto an outside stimulus, such as a picture Typical TAT pictures testing achievement motivation in children Typical TAT procedure

Motive for Success, Probability of Success, & Incentive Value Atkinson & Birch (1978) Achievement motivation is an expectancy-value theory because the tendency to engage in a particular activity is related to the strength of the expectation (belief) that the behavior will lead to a particular consequence Value of consequence is important Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations seem to be involved in approach-avoidance of an achievement-related situation

Motive for Success, Probability of Success, & Incentive Value Four variables involved in the tendency to approach or avoid achievement situations: Motive for success Stable characteristic; learned early in life as result of parental rewards being associated with achievement-related cues; positive emotion consequences Motive to avoid failure Stable characteristic; learned early in life as result of parental rewards being associated with achievement-related cues; negative emotion consequences Probability of success Varies from situation to situation; a person’s subjective estimate of success Incentive value Varies from situation to situation; some goals are worth more than others

Research on Achievement Motivation Atkinson & Litwin (1960) Procedure Assessed college males on motive for success; motive to avoid failure Ring-toss game; they could select distance to the peg anywhere form 1-15 feet Results Those scoring higher in motive for success than motive to avoid failure selected intermediate distances

Research on Achievement Motivation Isaacson (1964) Found that college males scoring higher in motive for success than motive to avoid failure selected majors of intermediate difficulty more often than those scoring higher in motive to avoid failure than motive for success Results supported Atkinson & Litman (1960) Interpretation of these research studies on achievement motivation: Those high in motive for success want take part in challenging tasks that they are capable of being successful at

Criticisms of Need-Achievement Theory Failures to replicate some important findings; preference for intermediate tasks is one Textbook cites three studies on page 250 that call this finding into question Dual constructs for motive for success and motive to avoid failure make interpreting research on achievement motivation difficult Difficult to differentiate the two; much overlap Some researchers question if the need for achievement is motivational Entwisle (1972) found low correlation between grades of high school students and their need-achievement scores Achievement motivation is multidimensional and this makes it difficult to accurately determine

Revisions to Need-Achievement Theory Dweck & Elliott (1983) Felt we were motivated by two specific goals Learning Goals Someone motivated by this type of goal will seek to master a task for the sake of increasing personal competence Performance Goals How one’s competence compares to others is the primary motivator for these type of goals

Attitudes, behaviors, and expectancy-Value Do attitudes correlate with behavior? Bickman (1972) Procedure Interviewed people who were walking in front of either a college library or a storefront nearby the college Asked them if they thought it was everyone’s responsibility to pick up litter or just those who get paid to do so After interview, participants would have to walk around or step over trash as it was in their path Results 94% said its everyone’s responsibility to pickup trash; yet only 1.4% actually did pick it up Interpretation Attitudes do not predict behaviors very well Other factors may be interacting

The Theory of Planned Behavior Ajzen (1991) Actual Behavioral Control Intentions and resources to perform the behavior; time and ability Perceived Behavioral Control One’s level of belief that they can successfully perform a given behavior Can be accurate perception; can be inaccurate

The Theory of Planned Behavior: Research & Applications Large body of literature on the subject; most focus on predicting behaviors related to health and safety The Theory of Planned Behavior increases accuracy in predicting diverse behaviors: Texting while driving Gambling Exercising Academic cheating Using public transportation Engaging in safe sex, drinking alcohol, taking medication, etc.

Social Loafing A group-produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks in which contributions are pooled Individuals are slacking off based on the expectancy that the rest of the group will work hard enough to accomplish a valued goal

Social Loafing Ringelman’s (1880’s) experiments Individual output declined on pooled tasks in all his experiments Units pulled in rope-tugging task: 1 person 100 2 people 186 3 people 255 8 people 392 Force exerted in a rope-tugging task: 1 person 184 lbs. 7 people averaged 143 lbs.

Social Loafing Ingham et al (1974) Procedure Blind folded rope pulling DV: Effort IV: Thought people were behind them or not Results Participants pulled 18% harder when they thought they were alone Interpretation Decreased motivation due to an increase in group size

Expectancy Value Theory & Social Loafing Karau & Williams (1993) Collective Effort Model Individuals will be motivated to perform well in tasks if they expect their effort will lead to obtaining a valued goal Three prerequisites for maximal individual effort to occur in a collective effort One must believe that individual effort will lead to improved group performance One must expect that the group’s performance will lead to a valued group outcome The group outcome must result in a valued individual outcome

Predicting & Reducing Social Loafing Karau & Williams (1993) Performed meta-analysis of 78 studies on social loafing to determine which variables were most involved in this phenomenon Social loafing can be reduced if: If participants think that individual contributions are identifiable If participants think that their contributions are unique and necessary for group success If participants value the task they are performing as being meaningful Less loafing in small groups Less loafing on simple tasks

Alternatives to the Expectancy-Value Approach to Social Loafing Latane, Williams, & Harkins (1979) Social Impact Theory This theory posits that performance in a group decreases because the pressure to work is dispersed among the members of the group The larger the group, the less pressure each member of the group feels to perform

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